ENGLISH COMPOSITION 
GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 




FREDERICK H. SYKES 




Class V/z 'l LlX 
Ronk , C> S 5 

Copyright^ 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 




Drawn by N. C. Wyeth. 



THE HARVEST MOON. 

(See Lesson LXXX, p. 313.) 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 

FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 



BY 

FREDERICK HENRY SYKES, M.A., Ph.D. 

TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 



ILLUSTRATED 



NEW YORK 

CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 

1908 



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UBHARY of CGN^£SS* 
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Copyright, 1908, by 
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 





INTRODUCTION. 

The Importance of Composition. Two subjects in 
the English of the Grammar School are of prime im- 
portance — Literature and Composition. Literature is im- 
portant for its ideas, its formative power; Composition 
for its development of .thought, of mental initiative and 
personality, as well as for its training in expression, a 
power of the highest social value. 

Material of Composition. Composition is primarily 
a training in thought — in the acquisition of ideas and 
their orderly and effective arrangement. It is the child's 
thought that must be trained. Nature's wisdom lives in 
his instinctive interests and aptitudes, and these determine 
the material to be presented. What the child rejects or 
cannot handle must be put aside; what he sees and does 
in the daily round of life — that interests him because it is 
near, familiar, and his own — that is the starting-point. 
Outside his own world the dominant mental interest of 
the child is the story, especially the story that deals with 
animals, with primitive life, and is touched with wonder. 
This narrative interest will naturally progress through 
the fairy tale, the fable, the legend, historical incident, 
and biography. As the child grows, his growing powers 
of observation, analysis, and reasoning will permit and 
call for the varied material offered by nature, human and 
animal industry, persons, industrial processes, qualities 
of men and things, and the general questions discussed 
whenever his schoolmates or his elders gather together. 



VI INTRODUCTION. 

This material — most of it — must be given the pupil; 
but he must think it over, and possess it; and the teacher 
must assure his possession of it by requiring discussion, 
topical outlines, and reproduction of its content. This 
material must be interesting. — "No profit grows where 
is no pleasure ta'en." It must be presented in small 
units — in units to ensure that essential of good teaching — 
lesson unity, and in small units to suit the child's capacity. 
This material must have a sequence, a progressive develop- 
ment of theme. Adding knowledge where something 
already is known means rational and permanent growth. 
Other studies, particularly Literature, History, and Nature 
Study, will afford good material as well; for Composition 
is not merely a branch of English, it is a function of mind. 

Initiative and Personality. More than any other 
school subject Composition calls for the child's own 
power of doing, his own mental initiative. The process 
of composition should be interest in the material, made 
intelligent by discussion, turning to expression. Thought 
that interests the child has dynamic power to stimulate 
his own mental activity. When he rewrites a story that 
he likes he will reproduce his own view of it, and bring 
his imagination into play. And imagination should be 
exercised in the school-room as one of the most precious 
mental gifts. Whatever talent the child has for drawing 
will respond to the call made upon him to illustrate the 
story. The play instinct, the instinct of "make-believe" — 
a vast source of delight and mental growth in children — 
can be turned to account, at every stage of the study. 

The more intelligently and sympathetically the child 
participates in what he writes, the better. His develop- 



INTRODUCTION. Vll 

ment should always be up to his subject. Every task 
should require an effort, but every task should, with 
effort, be accomplished easily. Work that perplexes the 
pupil because it is beyond his mental power or experience 
only damps his spirit and retards his growth. 

Expression. Composition is, moreover, the expres- 
sion of thought in words. The child's language faculty 
must be nourished and trained. His vocabulary must 
grow, for words are ideas made current. To give form 
and structure to his thought, the child must grow in 
knowledge of phrase-forms and sentence-forms. Reading 
and conversation are the chief sources of linguistic growth, 
and the slightest comment and practice will suffice to 
fix new words and phrases firmly in the memory. The 
memorizing of passages of good literature, usual in the 
teaching of Literature, is indispensable training for Com- 
position also, because it plants new thoughts, words, and 
language-forms, in the learner's mind, and establishes a 
high standard of expression. 

On the formal side, the fundamental study in Composi- 
tion is the structure of the sentence. The sentence is the 
tool of all thought — a tool infinitely varied, from the sim- 
plest to the subtlest and most complex expression. The 
understanding of the sentence — its forms and types, its 
parts and their functions — and of the sentence-group or 
paragraph — is the basis of all study of expression. 

Oral Composition. Expression is both oral and writ- 
ten. The spoken word is valuable for its immediate 
service in all social and business intercourse that brings 
people face to face. The written word is valuable for 
its service in transmitting and recording thought. Much 



Vlll INTRODUCTION. 

of the training proper to Oral Composition belongs to 
Reading, but the training that renders speech ready, 
direct, clear, belongs to Composition. Oral Composition 
demands sedulous cultivation. Through Oral Composi- 
tion the child may be trained to speak correctly, readily, and 
with self-possession. Opportunity for practice abounds. 
The material for composition can be used for oral discus- 
sion; anecdotes, local incidents, happenings in nature for 
oral telling; till we lead up ultimately to simple argument, 
speeches, and debate. The rule in all classes should re- 
quire the pupils to answer and comment in language that 
is clear, straightforward, correct, and complete. 

Written Composition. Written work allows time for 
its completion — a requisite in sustained work — and it 
offers a larger field for more complex exercise of thought, 
imagination, and expression. When expression becomes 
written, the formal elements of composition teaching call 
for more attention. There must be a developing plan of 
instruction that w T ill offer systematic study of capital and 
italic letters, punctuation, letter forms, business forms, 
order of words, agreement, government, while there is 
constant need of the teacher's supervision over the spelling, 
writing, neatness, and general form of the written themes. 

All teaching of formal elements, rules, terms, definitions, 
should be introduced by oral discussion. These are not 
ends in themselves; they should be taught merely as aids 
to expression. All theory, all rules, should be introduced 
slowly, for, to be effective, a little theory needs much 
practice. 

The correction of themes is a hard but a necessary 
part of the teacher's work. It may be made less a burden 



INTRODUCTION. ix 

to the teacher (i) By reducing the length of the written 
work. Make the rule that compositions must be brief but 
interesting; use a time limit — ten minutes — for written 
class work. (2) By using more oral composition. (3) 
By criticising orally themes read aloud. (4) By making 
the pupil his own critic and the critic of his schoolmates' 
work. (5) By using correctional symbols. 1 

English Grammar, Grammar should be correlated 
with both oral and written composition. Underlying all 
composition is the structure of the sentence; and all 
expression is pervaded with relationships of concord, 
government, variations of the form and order of words. 
The laws of Grammar are only the good habits of speech, 
and the knowledge of Grammar is the knowledge of the 
rules under which all good writers and speakers work. 
Grammatical rules are, therefore, only short cuts to cor- 
rectness. To keep the abstractions of Grammar intel- 
ligible, the teaching must be constantly associated with 
practice in both oral and w T ritten composition. Grammar 
in the early years of the study should be Composition- 



1 The following symbols are suggested : — 

Grade of Work: — A, very good. B, good. C, fair, D, indifferent. 
F, poor. To emphasize these marks, double the letters — AA, FF, etc. 

S. The spelling is faulty; consult the dictionary and correct. 

Cap. There is an error in the use or non-use of capitals; consult 
the rules, pp. 142-144, and rewrite the word. 

Ital. There is an error in the use or non-use of underlined words; 
consult the rules, p. 147, and rewrite the word. 

P. There is an error here in the use or non-use of the proper punctua- 
tion mark; consult the rules, pp. 152-185, and correct. 

Tr. Something is out of order here; transpose it 

/\. Something is omitted here; fill in what is lacking. 

d. Something written here is unnecessary; strike it out. 



X INTRODUCTION. 

Grammar, the law drawn from actual usage should 
immediately be applied in practice, above all in the 
practice of composing illustrations of the rule. Thus 
the teaching will be kept vivid, personal, near the child's 
life and activity. Current vulgarisms and errors of speech 
should be repressed by the teacher's authority, and the 
teaching enforced by class drill on the right forms of demon- 
stratives, tenses, concord, government, and so forth. 
Where the teaching is carried into thought and construc- 
tions beyond the child's average speech, the sentences used 
should have a good content of thought for the sake of the 
potential value of ideas. 

Effective Expression. The first problem of teaching 
is to secure facility of expression, but as facility grows 
the problem turns to that of effectiveness of expression. 
By insisting on effective expression, the pupil will be 
prepared for the principles of effective writing, just as 
the insistence on correctness has dominated his training 

?. The statement underlined is doubtful as to fact or meaning; modify 
it. The word underlined is of doubtful propriety; use a better word. 

Gr. An error in grammar is made here (concord, government, inflec- 
tion, etc.); correct it. 

Sent. The structure of the sentence is not good; the sentence lacks 
unity or is awkward; recast it. 

U. The paragraph is not well constructed; it may lack indentation; 
it may lack unity, — if so make a new paragraph beginning at this mark 
□ ; or it may lack orderly arrangement, — recast it. 

Brev. The expression lacks brevity; do away with unnecessary 

words. 

Dev. Develop this thought to give it more prominence. 

Int. The writing lacks interest; say something more worth while. 

Force. The part marked lacks force; improve. 

Mod. The sentence or paragraph does not follow on easily after 

the preceding; it needs some connecting word or some adjustment. 



INTRODUCTION. xi 

in the elements of form. The arrangement of the words 
of the sentence, of the sentences in the paragraph, the 
laws of unity, coherence, emphasis, the figures of speech, 
and qualities of style can be studied in simple fashion, 
and the principles exercised and applied in the pupil's 
own work. This study will suffice for the beginnings of 
Rhetoric usually made in Grade VIII. But the study, like 
the study of Grammar, should yield its chief result, not 
in definitions, but in an intelligent appreciation of good 
writing and increased effectiveness in expression. 

Difficulties in Teaching Composition. A subject 
that involves training in thought, in original power, in 
expression, is not a subject easy to teach. As a school 
study, Composition is still unorganized. Many teachers 
do not see clearly the ends to be attained in the study; 
they lack an organic method of instruction; all teachers 
need a mass of material of composition — models, exercises, 
themes — which they themselves have little time to select 
and prepare; and they are burdened with the almost 
intolerable burden of theme correction. 

The Plan of This Text-Book. Any method in a sub- 
ject so complex as Composition must, to be effective, be 
embodied in a text-book for class use. The present book 
aims to offer, on the method, material, and in the spirit 
outlined, a practical text-book for the VI, VII, and VIII 
Grades of the Grammar School. It presupposes, as prep- 
aration for it, language lessons in the earlier grades — 
lessons that will embody its principles modified to the 
needs of the youngest minds ; for Composition is the same 
thing, whether in the kindergarten or the college. 

The book is planned to cover the work of Grade VI on 



Xll INTRODUCTION 

pp. i-ioo. Grade VII might review the work of Grade VI, 
giving greater attention to the elements of form and to 
topical outlines; it should use greater freedom in the 
choice and treatment of composition themes; and should 
cover the kinds of words and elements of style, and ad- 
vance in composition into description (about p. 232). 
Grade VIII might review the earlier parts, taking the 
more difficult subjects, but devote most attention to the 
principles of effective writing and cover the elements of 
exposition, argumentation, and persuasion. 

Interest will be added to the class work if the teacher, 
while keeping to this general scheme for the development 
of his subject, varies narration with simple expositions or 
intersperses commercial forms with descriptions, and so on. 

The term " Lesson" used in the division of this book 
means a topic division, not the work to be done in a class 
period. Usually a " Lesson" will cover several class 
periods; but whatever time is taken to cover a Lesson, 
the law of lesson-unity need not be broken; one part 
should be done in each period, done clearly, fully, then 
on to the next part in the next period. 

The present edition of this work presupposes the study 
of formal Grammar after Grade VI by means of an inde- 
pendent book. 

The Place of Composition. Composition is the 
central subject of the elementary school course. Rightly 
pursued, it can aid — no subject more — in the develop- 
ment of the child's faculties; while, at the same time, 
it can train in the child a power that will later be of con- 
stant service in the world of thought and affairs. And, 
rightly taught, it can be a joy in child life. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGE 



Introduction V 

Chap. I. — Familiar Scenes and Incidents. — 

Lessons i-x i 

The Sentence, p. 2; Kinds of Sentence: Assertive (Declara- 
tive), Interrogative, Imperative, p. 4; Exclamatory, p. 6. 
Structure of the Sentence : Its Main Parts — Subject and 
Predicate, p. 9; Subject Understood, p. 11; the Simple 
Sentence, p. 15; the Compound Sentence, p. 19; Clause 
and Link-word, p. 19; Coordination and Subordination, 
p. 21; Principal Clause and Subordinate Clause, pp. 21, 22; 
the Complex Sentence, pp. 26, 27; the Complex-Compound 
Sentence, p. 29. Elements of Form : Capital Letters, 
pp. 2, 13; Margin and Indentation, p. 10; Punctuation of the 
Simple Sentence, pp. 2, 4, 6; of the Subordinate Clause, p. 22. 

Chap. II. — Fables. — Lessons xi-xvii 32 

Structure of the Sentence : Parts of the Subject — the 
Bare Subject and its Attributes, pp. 32, ^^; the Subject or 
Predicate Understood, pp. 35, 36; the Compound Subject, 
pp. 37, 38; Parts of the Predicate — the Bare Predicate 
(Verb) and its Modifiers, pp. 41, 42; the Subject and 
Object, p. 45; Direct and Indirect Object, p. 48; the Predi- 
cate Complement, p. 52. Elements of Form — Punctua- 
tion : Quotation-marks for Direct Narration, p. 34; Com- 
ma with a Series, p. 38; the Paragraph, pp. 43, 52. Topical 
Outline, 35. 

Chap. III. — Folk-lore and Fairy-tales. — Les- 
sons xviii-xxi 56 

Structure of the Sentence : Analysis of the Simple Sen- 
tence, p. 57; of the Compound Sentence, p. 60; of the 
Complex Sentence, p. 64; of the Complex-Compound Sen- 
tence, p. 68. 

xiii 



xiv CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chap. IV. — Saints' Lives and Old-World 

Legends. — Lessons xxii-xxviii 70 

Words: The Noun, pp. 72, 73; Number, p. 76; in Nouns, 
pp. 77, 80, 82, 83; in Adjectives, in Pronouns, in Verbs, 
p. 83; Gender Nouns — Masculine, Feminine, Neuter, pp. 86, 
87; Case — Nominative, Objective, Possessive, pp. 91-93; 
Means of Indicating Case, pp. 95, 96. 

Chap. V. — Nature Themes. — Lessons xxix-xl . . . 100 

Words : The Adjective, p. 102; the Pronoun, pp. 106, 107; the 
Verb, p. 112; the Adverb, p. 115; the Preposition, p. 11 
the Conjunction, pp. 122, 123, 125; the Interjection, pp. 128, 
129. Summary of the Parts of Speech, pp. 129, 130 
Functional Values : Phrases and Clauses — Adjective, 
Adverb, Noun, Preposition, Conjunction, Verb, pp. 133, 134 
Elements of Form : Capital Letters, pp. 142-144 
Italic or Underlined Letters, p. 147. Developing a 
Theme, pp. 136-138. Topical Outline, p. 138. 

Chap. VI. — Letters. — Lesson xli-xliv 151 

Letter-writing: The Familiar Letter, p. 151; Its Parts, 
pp. 156, 157; Addressing the Envelope, pp. 158, 159; Paper 
and Ink, p. 159; the Formal Personal Letter, p. 163; Formal 
Invitations, pp. 163, 164; the Business Letter, pp. 167, 168. 
Elements of Form — Punctuation: The Period, pp. 152, 
153; the Interrogation, pp. 159, 160; the Exclamation, 
p. 160; Quotation-marks, p. 160; the Comma, pp. 165, 166, 
168, 169. Letter Forms: The Familiar Letter, p. 158; 
the Envelope, p. 159; the Formal Private Letter, p. 163; 
Invitations, p. 164; the Business Letter, pp. 167, 168. 

Chap. VIL — Commercial Forms. — Lessons xlv- 

xlvii 173 

Business Forms : The Bill, Invoice, and Statement of Ac- 
count, pp. 173-175; the Receipt, p. 177; the Check, p. 178; 
the Note, p. 179; the Due-bill, p. 179; the Postal Card, 
p. 182; the Telegram, p, 183; the Advertisement, p. 183. 



CONTENTS XV 

PAGE 

Elements of Form — Punctuation : The Semicolon, 
p. 175; the Colon, pp. 179, 180; Parenthesis, p. 180; the 
Dash, p. 184; the Apostrophe, p. 185; the Hyphen, p. 185. 
Examples of Commercial Forms : Bill for Merchandise, 
p. 174; for Services, p. 175; the Receipt, p. 177; the 
Check, p. 178; the Note, p. 179; the Postal Card, p. 182; 
the Telegram, pp. 182, 183; the Advertisement, p. 183. 

Chap. VIII. — Historical Narrative. — Lessons 

xlviii-lv 188 

Narration: Narration and Narrative, p. 191; Principles of 
Narration, p. 191; Unity, p. 191; Order of Details, p. 191; 
Interest, p. 192; Plot, p. 192; Resolution, or Denouement, 
p. 195; Ending, p. 195; Proportion, pp. 198, 199. Ele- 
ments of Style: Person, pp. 199, 200; Number, p. 200; 
Agreement or Concord, pp. 200, 201, 218; Order of 
Words, pp. 203, 204, 208, 209; Choice of Words, concrete or 
abstract, pp. 21 1-2 13. 

Chap. IX. — Description. — Lessons lvi-lxvi 22c 

Description: Description Defined, pp. 232, 233; Its Princi- 
ples — Plan, Coherence, Point of View, Development, Sig- 
nificance, Salient Characteristic, Unity of Theme and Tone, 
p. 233. Elements of Style : Choice of Words — Simplicity, 
p. 222; Verb Forms — Strong or Weak, pp. 224, 225, 228; 
Purity, p. 234; Precision, p. 237; Number of Words — Con- 
ciseness, p. 240. Figures of Speech : Figure of Speech 
Defined, p. 245; Figures of Contrast, p. 246; of Resem- 
blance, pp. 246, 247; of Association, pp. 250, 251; of Man- 
ner of Expression, pp. 254-256. 

Chap. X. — Expository Composition. — Lessons 

lxvii-lxxiii 261 

Exposition : Exposition Defined, pp. 263, 264; Its Princi- 
ples — Plan,Unity, Topic Sentences, p. 266; Need of Simplicity 
and Clearness, pp. 266, 269, 270. Qualities of Style — 
Simplicity: Its Elements, pp. 275, 276; Clearness: Its 
Elements, pp. 281, 282. 



xvi CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chap. XI. — Argumentation. — Lesson lxxiv 288 

Argumentation: Argumentation Denned, p. 288; Reason- 
ing, p. 288. 

Chap. XII. — Persuasion. — Lessons lxxv-lxxvi . . 290 

Persuasion: Persuasion Denned, p. 292; Its Principles, 
p. 292. Qualities of Style — Force : Its Elements, pp. 294- 
298; Peroration, p. 298. 

Chap. XIII. — Special Qualities or Style. — Les- 
sons lxxvii-lxxx 299 

Qualities of Style : Modulation, p. 299. Symmetry, 
pp. 301, 302; Balance, p. 301; Parallel Construction, p. 302. 
Melody, p. 302. Picturesqueness, pp. 304,305. Pathos, 
pp. 306-307. Humor, pp. 309, 310. 

Source Books for Composition 314 

Index 315 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 

FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 



ENGLISH COMPOSITION 

FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



CHAPTER I.— FAMILIAR SCENES 
AND INCIDENTS. 

LESSON I. 

L Oral Composition. — Tell what you can see in this 
picture of a school-house. 




"A Country School-House." Photograph by L. S 

I. Where does the school-house stand? What is its 
shape? Of what is it built? What can you say of its 
color?' Its windows? Its chimney? Its belfry? The 
school-yard? The trees? What is the school for? 



2 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

2. Is it like the school you go to? Where is it? What 
is its shape ? Its material ? Its color, etc. ? 

II. The Sentence. — To speak or write about things, 
we have names for things. Note the things in the school- 
room. Note the name for each thing. Note the things 
shown in the picture. Give the name for each thing in 
the picture. 

Can you think something about each of the things in 
the picture? For example: 

The school-house has stone walls. 
Trees are growing by the school-house. 

Say what you think about: i. The school. 2. The 
bell. 3. The school-yard. 4. The trees. 5. The pupils. 

A complete thought expressed in words is called a sen- 
tence. 

Exercise i. — Which of the following groups of words 
states what we think about a thing: 1. The school-house 
stands back a little from the road. 2. The trees of the 
school-house. 3. The school-yard is large enough to play 
in. 4. The windows in the wall. 5. The school-house is 
built of large, square-cut stones. 6. Rising up from the 
farther end the belfry. 

Exercise 2. — In the preceding exercise complete the 
groups of words that do not state anything, so that they 
make statements and become sentences. 

Elements of Form.— Punctuation. Note how a sen- 
tence begins with a capital letter and ends usually with 
a period. 

The old school-house is built of gray stone. 



FAMILIAR SCENES AND INCIDENTS. 3 

III. Written Composition. — i. Write down what you 
can say about the school-house in the picture. 

2. Write down what you can about your own school- 
house and yard, as if you saw them from the road. 

Begin each sentence with a capital letter and end each 
with a period. Make a picture of the school-house, if you 
like, to go with your story. 

The written work completed, the pupils may exchange books and mark (X) 
any errors in the use of capitals, punctuation marks, and spelling. The exer- 
cises returned, some of the compositions may be read aloud, to see which pupil 
has seen and remembered most about the school. 



LESSON II. 

I. Oral Composition.— An incident in the school- 
room. Study this 
picture. 

What is the picture 
about ? What sort of 
room do you see? 
What time is it? 
What is the boy's 
name? What is the 
girl's name? What 
was the girl going to 
do? What did the 
boy wish to do for 
the girl? What has 
happened? Where 
did the ink splash 

and fUn? HOW did "The Spilled Ink." Painting by G. Igler. 

they try to stop it ? What did the boy say ? What did 
the girl say? What did the teacher say? 




4 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

II. Kinds of Sentences.— Sentences are of different 
kinds. The following sentences express the thoughts that 
girls write well and boys help the girls. Note any differ- 
ences you can in the way the thought is expressed: 

(i) Girls write well. (i) Boys help the girls. 

(2) Do girls write well? (2) Do boys help the girls? 

(3) Write well, girls. (3) Boys, help the girls. 

(1) The sentence that asserts or declares something is 
called an assertive or declarative sentence. 

Girls write well. Boys help girls. Boys do not help girls. 

(2) The sentence that says something as a question is 
called an interrogative sentence. 

Do girls write well? Does the boy help the girl? 

(3) The sentence that says something as a command or 
entreaty is called an imperative sentence. 

Write well, girls. Help the girls, boys. Do not run, boys. 
Exercise i. — (1) Some pupils suggest things in the 
picture, others suggest statements — make declarative 
sentences — about them. 

(2) Some pupils suggest things in the school-room, 
others ask questions — make interrogative sentences — 
about the things. 

(3) Imagine the ink spilled, the ceiling coming down, a 
fire breaking out, give to the other pupils the appropriate 
commands — make imperative sentences. 

Elements of Form.— Punctuation. Note that the 
interrogative sentence is marked by a question mark (?) 
(also called interrogation mark or interrogation point 
or query). 

Does the boy help the girl? Do not girls write well? 



FAMILIAR SCENES AND INCIDENTS. 5 

III. Written Composition.— i. An Incident in the 
School-room. 

Write a series of sentences telling the story in the picture 
at the head of this Lesson. Take care that each sentence 
begins with a capital letter and ends with a period. 

2. Tell about any incident that has happened in your 
own school. 

When the written work is completed, the pupils may exchange books and 
mark ( X ) any errors in the use of capitals, punctuation marks, and in spelling. 
When the books are returned and corrected, two or three of the compositions 
that the readers think interesting may be read aloud entire by the writers. 



LESSON III. 
I. Oral Composition. — Study this picture. 




"Seaside Pleasures" Photograph by E. J. Rowt 



6 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Tell all you can see in this picture: What is the scene? 
Where is it? What do you see in the distance? What 
kind of day is it? What month?, Is the sun shining? 
What time of day is it? What color is the sky? the 
water? the sand? Who are the little children? Where 
do they come from ? Where are their shoes and stockings ? 
What are they doing? What else did they do? How 
long did they stay by the shore ? What did they say when 
they went home ? 

II. Kinds of Sentences. — A sentence may take the 
form of an exclamation to express a strong feeling. 

What a wave it was! Won't he catch it! 

How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank! 

The sentence that expresses sudden, strong feeling is 
called an exclamatory sentence. 

The exclamation is often found expressed in a declara- 
tive, or interrogative, or imperative sentence. 

Look out for that wave! Who would be a coward slave? 

Elements of Form. — Punctuation. The exclama- 
tory sentence is usually marked in writing by an exclama- 
tion mark ( ! ) But the interrogative sentence, even when 
exclamatory, often ends with its regular point (?). 

Exercise i. — Suppose a fire-engine were coming down 
the street, or a runaway horse, suggest the exclamatory 
sentences that would be appropriate. 

Exercise 2. — If an accident happened in the street, 
what exclamatory sentences might you hear? 

Only sentences are to be accepted, not mere exclamations. 

Exercise 3. — If you came suddenly on the scene of 



FAMILIAR SCENES AND INCIDENTS. 7 

the picture above, what exclamatory sentences might you 
utter ? 

Exercise 4. — Make different kinds of sentences com- 
pleting the following. Tell the kind of sentence you 

make: 1. return to school. 2. is our 

teacher. 3. How glad L — are to see one another! 

4. opens at nine o'clock. 5. Hark! . 6. 

take our seats. 7. stops. 8. be- 
gins again. 

Exercise 5. — Make sentences about the following. 
Vary the kind you make : 1. The fall of the year. 2. The 
end of the holidays. 3. The beginning of school. 4. 
Meeting other boys (or girls). 

Exercise 6. — Tell the kind of sentence each of the 
following is: 1. The shades of night were falling fast. 
2. That is the way for Billy and me. 3. Let us stand 
here. 4. Would the ship would come! 5. How yellow 
the leaves look! 6. I heard the ripple washing in the 
reeds. 7. The whale-ship came back from her long voy- 
age. 8. Sink me the ship, master gunner. 9. The path 
of duty is the way to glory. 10. The foe, they come ! they 
come! 11. What a piece of work is man! 12. What! 
would you have a serpent sting thee tw T ice? 

III. Written Composition. — Write the story of a day 
by the shore. Use the scene of the picture. 

Be careful to write the title and the sentences with the 
proper capital letters and punctuation marks. Vary the 
sentences used. 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



LESSON IV. 
I. Oral Composition. — The Story of an Outing 







.;..,.■ ' • . 


Hiliffr 


■■'■■"■*'..;,■■• ^ 




'V 


..■■■■■■■:.. 





"Tennyson's Brook at Somersby." Photograph by Edwin Nainiy. 

1. Study the picture. Tell the class what you think is 
the story of the day's outing that the picture suggests. 

2. Tell the class how you have spent a day by the water. 
Tell where you like to go. Whom you like to go with. 
How you get there. The best kind of day to go. How 
the place looks when you reach it. What you do when 
you are there. How you feel when you get back home. 

Let the sentences be short, clearly spoken, and varied. 



FAMILIAR SCENES AND INCIDENTS. 9 

II. The Structure of the Sentence.— Its Main Parts. 

Note that a sentence has parts: 

The brook | runs. The grass | is green. 
The fish ! swim about in the water. 
The girl j has caught a trout. 

What are these main parts? (1) The thing we speak 
about, and (2) What we say about it. The thing we speak 
about is called the subject of the sentence. What we say 
about the subject is called the predicate of the sentence. 

Exercise i. — Point out in the following sentences (i) 
The thing we speak about, and (2) What we say about it: 
1. The man is sitting by the tree. 2. The girl holds a 
fishing-pole. 3. The banks of the stream are high and 
steep. 4. The trees bend over the stream. 5. The man 
and the girl walked home in the evening. 

Exercise 2. — Point out in the following sentences: 
(1) What you are speaking of, and (2) What you say about 
it: 1. The moon shines bright. 2. The little stars sparkle 
in the heavens. 3. There come the Indians ! 4. Over the 
water speeds the canoe. 5. The stroke of paddle hardly 
breaks the silence of the night. 6. The very trees seem 
asleep. 

Exercise 3. — Point out (1) the subject and (2) the 
predicate in each of the following sentences: 1. A drop of 
ink may make thousands think. 2. The poet makes songs 
and ballads. 3. Our children love to read about fairies. 
4. Our little girls have read all about Cinderella and the 
Sleeping Beauty. 5. The teacher once told us the story 
of Goldilocks. 6. The pen is mightier than the sword. 

Exercise 4. — Add a predicate to each of the following: 



IO COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

i. This month . 2. The holidays . 3. The 

harvest . 4. The apples . 5. The leaves 

. 6. The birds . 7. The weather . 

8. Boys and girls . 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write a free com- 
position on some outing of your own by river or lake, etc. 

[The Title.] The Story 0} an Outing. 

Note i. — The title must be in the middle of the line about an inch below the 
top of the sheet. 

Last summer I was staying with my uncle in the Adirondacks. 
One evening he told me that he was going next day to drive back 
into the woods . 

Note 2. Margin. — Note the margin around the printed page. In writing 
leave a margin on the left side of the sheet, also at the top and the bottom of the 
sheet. 

Note 3. Indentation. — Note that the first line of each paragraph has a 
wider margin on the left than the lines that follow. Imitate this in writing. 

Note down, before you write your story, the points you 
are going to mention, in the order in which they occurred. 
Make the story truthful and interesting. In writing, place 
the title correctly and indent the first line. When you 
have finished, review your story, and correct any errors of 
spelling, punctuation, capital letters. 

When the exercise is completed, papers may be exchanged, and errors in 
spelling, punctuation, and capitals marked. After correction, two or three that 
are thought to be well told, may be read aloud to the class by the writers. 

2. Write a story on one of the following subjects: i. A 
Fish Story. 2. My Summer Trip. 3. The Best Day of 
the Holidays. 4. How I Saw a Bear. 



FAMILIAR SCENES AND INCIDENTS. 



II 



LESSON V. 
I. Oral Composition. — Study this picture. 

1. Where is the dog? What is his name? What kind 
of dog is he ? What 
is his disposition? 
Where is he ? How did 
he come to be there ? 
Has the dog any right 
where he is? What 
has the cow come to 
do? What does the 
dog do ? What does 
the cow say? What 
does the dog reply? 
What do you think of 
such a dog as that? 
Are people sometimes 
like that dog ? What 
would be a good title 
for this story? 

2. Tell the story, substituting other animals for the dog 
and the cow. 

3. Show how the story could be true of certain people. 

II. The Structure of the Sentence. — Subject Under- 
stood. In the imperative sentence the subject is not 
always expressed. When we tell somebody to do some- 
thing, we say, for example: 

I Look at that dog. | Take care. 

I Get out of the manger. 




"The Dog in the Manger.' 
Douglas. 



Pahuing by Edwin 



12 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

The person about whom the assertion is made is not 
mentioned, but the speaker and the person spoken to know 
and understand who is meant. It is as if we said: 

You | look at that dog. You | take care. 

You | get out of the manger. 

The subject in imperative sentences is, then, frequently 
understood and not expressed. 

Sometimes we add a word of address to make the sense 
clear. 

Look at that dog, children. Now, cow, take care. 

Get out of the manger, dog. 

Exercise i. — Make imperative sentences (i) about the 
dog; (2) about the cow. 

Exercise 2. — Make imperative sentences about closing 
the door, opening the window, writing on the board, etc. 
See if the subject can be left unexpressed. 

Exercise 3. — Some pupils will ask questions (oral) 
about objects in the room. Some pupils will make de- 
clarative sentences (oral) in answer. 

Exercise 4. — In the following sentences, state which 
are declarative, which are interrogative, and which are 
imperative: 1. Knowledge gives power. 2. Into the val- 
ley of death rode the Six Hundred. 3. Come one, come 
all. 4. Were you looking for a ship, stranger? 5. Give 
me liberty or give me death. 6. The shades of night were 
falling fast. 7. Charge, Chester, charge. 8. Which is the 
best of lands ? 9. Happy human beings make the richest 
land. 

Exercise 5. — Point out the subjects and the predicates 
of the preceding sentences. 



FAMILIAR SCENES AND INCIDENTS. 



*3 



Elements of Form.— Capital Letters. Note how titles 
of stories are written. 

The Girl and the Geese. 

The Story of Jack-the-Giant-Killer. 

The Sleeping Beauty. 

How the Elephant Got His Trunk. 

The first word, and all the important words, of titles of 
stories are written with capital letters. The title is usually 
followed by a period. 

Exercise 6. — Write the titles of any five stories you 
know. See that you use the proper capital letters. 

III. Written Composition. — Write down a title for the 
story of the picture. See that it is placed properly on the 
page and has proper capital letters. 

Under the title tell the story of the picture. Take care 
that each sentence begins with a capital letter and ends 
with a period. 



14 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



LESSON VI. 
I. Oral Composition. — Study this picture. 




'A Critical Moment. 



Painting by L. Knaus. 



1. What is the picture about? Where did the child 
come from? Where is she standing? What does she 
hold in her hand? Where are the geese coming from? 
What are the geese trying to do? How does the child 
feel? What does she say to the geese? What does she 
do? What do the geese say to her? What do they do? 
How does the story end? Did the geese get the slice of 
bread and butter or not ? What did anyone who saw the 
incident say? 

2 . What title shall we give the story in the picture ? 

II. The Structure of the Sentence. — The Simple 



FAMILIAR SCENES AND INCIDENTS. 15 

Type. The sentence may contain only one simple state- 
ment. 

(1) Geese | swim. (2) Geese | eat grass. 

(3) Maty I likes bread and butter. 

There is in each sentence only one statement (z. e., one 
subject and one predicate). This is the simplest type of 
sentence. But compare the sentence: 

Geese | eat grass || but || children | like bread and butter. 

Here there are two statements united in the one sentence. 
It is not a simple sentence. 

The sentence that contains only one single statement 
is called a simple sentence. 

The simple sentence may be declarative : Geese swim. 
The simple sentence may be interrogative : Does Mary like 
bread and butter? 

The simple sentence may be imperative: Run away, 
Mary. 

The simple sentence may be exclamatory : What a flock 
of geese that is ! 

Exercise i. — Make simple sentences — declarative, in- 
terrogative, imperative, exclamatory — (1) about the scene 
in the picture; (2). about the school-room, its size, walls, 
windows, floor, desks, etc.; (3) about the weather; (4) 
about boys; (5) about girls. 

Exercise 2. — Turn the following simple declarative 
sentences into (1) simple imperative sentences and (2) 
into simple interrogative sentences: 1. The moon shines 
bright. 2. We do pray for mercy. 3. We shall seek our 
uncle in the Forest of Arden. 4. The boy ran away to 
sea. 5. The bells ring out to the wild sky. 



i6 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



Exercise 3.— Turn the following simple imperative 
sentences into (1) simple declarative sentences and (2) into 
simple interrogative sentences: 1. Blow, thou winter 




"The Fairy Book." Painting by S. Giulio Rotta. 

wind! 2. Charge for the guns! 3. Come unto these 
yellow sands. 4. Let me play the fool. 5. Take no 
thought for the morrow. 

Exercise 4. — Turn the following simple interrogative 
sentences into (1) declarative sentences and (2) simple 
imperative sentences: 1. Are you looking for a needle in a 
haystack? 2. Do you believe in fairies? 3. Who is he 
that cometh like an honored guest? 4. Shall we fight, 
good Sir Richard ? 

Exercise 5. — Turn the following exclamatory sen- 
tences into corresponding declarative sentences: 1. How 



FAMILIAR SCENES AND INCIDENTS. 



17 



sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank! 2. If I my- 
self could only dig! 3. What a lovely face she has! 4. 
What a piece of work is man ! 5. How dizzy it is to cast 
one's eyes so low ! 

Exercise 6. — Make simple statements of various kinds 
about what you see in the picture called "The Fairy 
Book/' p. 16. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write a title and tell 
the story of the picture at the head of the Lesson. 

Make the story interesting by imagining the surprise of 
the girl, her anxiety, and a funny conclusion. 

2. Tell any adventure you have had with some bird or 
animal. 

LESSON VII. 




An Amusing Story 
artist.) 



Painting by J. G. Brown, N .A. (By permission of the 



i8 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



1. Oral Composition. — i. How to tell a story. Ob- 
serve this group of bootblacks. Note the animation of the 
boy telling the story, his gestures; note the eager attention 
and pleasure of his listeners. What kind of story does he 
tell? 

2. Study this picture. Who are the people of the story? 
What shall we call the story? What was the sentry's 





" 'Tis The Emperor ! " Painting by H. Glazebrook. 

duty ? What was his punishment if he was faithless to 
duty? What was Napoleon's duty? How did he find 
the sentry asleep? What did he do? What did the 
sentry think when he awoke ? What did he say ? What 
did Napoleon say? (The army had just suffered great 
hardships and won great victories.) 

Tell the story to the class — tell it with animation and 
interest. 

II. The Structure of the Sentence.— The Compound 



FAMILIAR SCENES AND INCIDENTS. 19 

Type. One sentence may contain two simple statements 
of equal value. 

The simple sentences — 

John I told the story. The boys all | listened. 
may be combined into one sentence — 

John I told the story || and || the boys all | listened. 

A sentence made up of two simple statements is called a 
compound sentence. 

The compound sentence may be represented, as if two 
(or more) cars were linked together, by this : 



The Clause. — You can easily separate the compound 
sentence into its simple parts. 

(1) John told the story || and || (2) the boys all listened. 

Note that each part here says something — each part has 
its own subject and predicate. Each part that says some- 
thing is called a clause. The word that joins the clauses 
is the link-word. 

Exercise i. — Make two simple statements in one sen- 
tence about (1) something in the first picture in this 
Lesson; (2) something in the second picture. 

Exercise 2. — What simple statements are contained in 
each of the following compound sentences; tell how many 
clauses each sentence has : 1 . Harry is at school, but John 
is at work. 2. Run home, get your skates, and be off to 
the river. 3. Either he is wrong or you are. 4. The har- 
vest is plenteous, but the laborers are few. 5. Men may 
come and men may go, but I go on forever. 6. The rain 
descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and 
beat upon that house, and it fell not. 



20 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



Exercise 3. — Make compound sentences of the fol- 
lowing groups of simple sentences: 1. He caught a cold. 
He is very ill. 2. A certain man planted a vineyard. The 
man let it to husbandmen. The man went into a far 
country for a long time. 3. I tried to find the ball. I 
could not find the ball. I gave the ball up for lost. 4. I 
cannot write well. Mary cannot write well. You can 
write well. 5. The rain descended. The floods came. 
The winds blew. The winds beat upon the house. The 
house fell. 

III. Written Composition. — Write the story in the 
picture of "'Tis The Emperor!" 

Give a title to the story. Write the story just as if you 
were telling it aloud to the class. 



LESSON VIII. 




"Saved" Painting by Sir Edwin Landseer. 



FAMILIAR SCENES AND INCIDENTS. 21 

I. Oral Composition.— Study the story suggested by 
this picture. 

1 . Various pupils will try to tell the story as they see it 
in the picture. 

2. Other pupils will add to the story told anything they 
see in the picture that has not been told. 

3. Review the full story, covering all the details. 

4. Tell to the class any incident you know about the 
devotion or sagacity of a dog or other animal. 

II. The Structure of the Sentence. — i. Coordina- 
tion. In the sentence: 

The storm blew and the waves rose. 

note the two clauses in the sentence. Note that each 
clause could be stated separately, each in a simple sen- 
tence : 

The storm blew. The waves rose. 

The clauses are equal or coordinate in value. They are 
united in one sentence to express one full thought in the 
story of the storm. 

Exercise i. — Make two statements of equal value in 
the same sentence about: 1. The child and the dog. 2. 
Boys and girls. 3. Christmas and New Year's Day. 4. 
Geography and history. 5. The creek and the river. 

2. Subordination. — But if we say: 

(1) The waves rose, (2) when the storm blew. 

w r e express (1) one main statement, and in (2) give the time 
or reason for the action. We state the important and prin- 
cipal thought in (1) the principal clause; (2) we sub- 
ordinate the less important statement — the time, manner, 



2 2 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

cause, kind, etc., of something in the main statement — and 
put it in a modifying or subordinate clause. The 
modifying or subordinate clause, as it were, hangs on 
to the principal clause and is also called the dependent 
clause. 

Study to find out why one clause is principal and another 
is subordinate. 

Elements of Form. — Punctuation. Notice that for 
clearness the subordinate clause is frequently marked off 
by a comma (,) from the principal clause. 

When the storm blew, the waves rose. 

As the boat sank, the dog began to swim for the shore. 

When, however, the meaning of the sentence is clear 
without the comma, do not use it. 

The dog knew [no comma] that he could swim. 

Here is the man who told me how to come. 

They fished all day where they had caught fish before. 

Exercise 2. — Add to the principal clause less important 
statements in subordinate clauses: 1. We stayed indoors 
[why, when, how long, etc.]. 2. We come to school [why, 

when, etc.]. 3. Boys like holidays because . 4. 

Dogs [what kind] are of no use. 5. Boys [what 

kind] become good men. 6. Girls [what kind] 

love books. 7. When , the sun came out. 

8. [cause], the men went hunting. 9. [time], 

the boys caught a big pike. 

Write the sentences made for practice in punctuation. 

Exercise 3. — Some pupils will in turn suggest a simple 
sentence, others add a suitable coordinate clause. 



FAMILIAR SCENES AND INCIDENTS. 



2 3 



Exercise 4. — Some pupils will suggest a simple sen- 
tence, others will add a dependent clause. 

Exercise 5. — Point out (1) which clauses are principal, 
(2) which are coordinate, and which are subordinate in 
the following sentences; (3) explain the punctuation of 
each sentence: 1. Margery thought that she would like to 
sit down on the bank. 2. She lay down on the grass, till 
a beetle ran over her. 3. United, we stand; divided, we 
fall. 4. The thunder now ceased, the wind fell, and the 
lake grew calm. 5. Although the slave-ship was armed, 
it was no match for the English cruiser. 6. Give me lib- 
erty or give me death. 7. Ye that fear the Lord, wait for 
His mercy! 8. Many are called but few are chosen. 9. 
The man that never felt a wound jests at scars. 

III. Written Composition. — Tell the story in the 
picture at the head of the Lesson. 

Give a suitable title to the story. Before you begin to 
write, note down all the points in the story in the order in 
which you are going to tell the story. Think of what 
you see and what you hear. Make the story brief but 
interesting. Express the excitement of the rescue, as if 
you were an onlooker. 

LESSON IX. 

I. Study this incident: 

The Skaters and the Wolves. 

It was in the dead of winter that we had our most 
dangerous adventure with wild animals. The lake was 
frozen over, and our boys, Frank and Harry, spent much 



24 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



of their time in skating on it. One day the boys were out 
by themselves, and we could distinctly hear their merry 
laugh and the ring of their skates, when all at once a cry 
reached our ears which we knew meant danger. We all 
rushed to the door, I -with a rope, and Cudjo, our colored 
servant, with his long spear. In a moment we were out- 




"A Winter Night " (in Lithuania). Painting by A. v. Wierusz-Kowalski. Copyright, 189 5, 
Photo graphische Gesellschaft. By permission of the Berlin Photographic Co., New York, 

side the house, and could see both the boys at the farthest 
end of the lake skating toward us as fast as they could, 
Close behind them upon the ice, and following at full gal- 
lop, was a pack of wolves! 

They were not the small prairie wolves which the boys 
might have chased away with a stick, but the larger ani- 
mals known as the great Dusky Wolf of the Rocky Moun- 



FAMILIAR SCENES AXD INCIDENTS. 



2 5 



tains. There were six of them, their long dark bodies 
gaunt with hunger, and crested from head to tail with a 
high bristling mane. They ran with their ears set back 
and their jaws apart, so that we could see their red tongues 
and white teeth. I seized a large rail as I ran, while Cudjo 
hurried forward armed w T ith a spear. My wife turned 
back into the house for my rifle. 

I saw that Harry was foremost, and that the wolves w r ere 
closing upon Frank. This was strange, for we knew that 
Frank w T as by far the better skater. The wolves were 
upon his heels! "O, they will kill him!" I cried. What 
was my joy at seeing him suddenly w r heel and dart off in 
a new direction, while the wolves slid on helplessly over 
the smooth ice. 

The wolves then took on after Harry, and in a moment 
w r eie close upon him; but, warned by his brother, he, too, 
wheeled in a similar manner, while the fierce brutes w r ere 
carried a long distance before they could turn themselves. 

We heard Frank calling out to his brother to make for 
the shore. When Harry had passed, Frank dashed off, 
followed closely by the whole pack. Another slight turn 
brought him nearly in our direction; but there was a large 
hole broken through the ice close by the shore, and we feared 
he would skate into it. We shouted to warn him, but he 
knew better than we what he was about. Within a few 
feet of the hole he wheeled sharply to the left, and came 
dashing up to the point where we stood. The wolves 
went sweeping past the point w T here he had turned, and 
plunged through the broken ice into the water. Cudjo 
and I ran forward, and with the heavy rail and the long 
spear, commenced dealing death among them. 



26 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

This was, indeed, a day of great excitement in our forest 
home. Frank, who was the hero of the day although he 
said nothing, was no doubt not a little proud of his skating 
feat. 

By Mayne Redd.— Adapted. 

1 . What do you know about wolves ? — the gray, or tim- 
ber, wolf and the prairie wolf — the coyote — the appearance 
of the timber wolf, his food, the pack, the danger they are 
to mankind ? 

2. Tell how the incident in the story of "The Skaters 
and the Wolves" came about. Who were Frank and 
Harry? Where did they live? How did they get into 
danger? How did Frank help Harry? How did they 
escape ? What became of the wolves ? 

3. Give other words for the following: 1. In the dead 
of winter. 2. Spent their time. 3. The cry meant dan- 
ger. 4. Following at full gallop. 5. Gaunt with hunger. 
6. The wolves were closing upon Frank. 7. They took 
after Harry. 8. In our direction. 9. What he was about. 
10. We dealt death among the wolves. 

4. Make a map of the scene of the story, showing the 
places. Trace the course of the chase. 

5. Tell the story orally. 

6. Draw up an orderly plan of the story. Arrange the 
details in groups according to the main parts of the story. 

II. The Structure of the Sentence. — The Complex 
Type. Study the type of structure of these sentences: 

The boys took to skating when the lake froze over. 

A cry reached our ears which meant danger. 

I saw that Harry was foremost. 

Frank, who was the hero of the day, was proud of his exploit. 



FAMILIAR SCENES AND INCIDENTS. 27 

Each sentence here has a main or principal statement. 
There is also something in the main or principal statement 
that is modified by a subordinate clause. A sentence of 
this type — that is, made up 0} one principal clause and one 
or more modifying clauses — is called a complex sentence. 

The complex sentence may be represented by this 
diagram, in which the main heavy line is the principal 
clause and the lighter line the modifying clause that goes 
with it. 



Exercise i. — Compare the complex with the com- 
pound sentence and show the difference in the structure. 

Exercise 2. — Show that the subordinate clause may 
modify either the subject or the predicate of the sentence 
(see p. 9). 

Exercise 3. — Make a simple statement about any- 
thing in the picture, and modify it by a subordinate clause. 

Exercise 4. — Add a suitable subordinate clause to 
modify the predicate in each of the following sentences: 

1. Mary rode home . 2. I remember . 3. 

Do not count your chickens — . 4. The farmer sat 

in his easy chair . 5. It is four o'clock 

6. I am always happy . 

Exercise 5. — Add a suitable subordinate clause to 
modify the subject in each of the following sentences: 

1. The sky was suddenly overcast. 2. The wind 

blew a gale. 3. Our house was most ex- 
posed to the storm. 4. The garden was almost 

ruined. 5. The water swept away the roadway. 

6. The storm was the heaviest of the year. 

Exercise 6. — Add a suitable subordinate clause to com- 



28 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



plete each of the following: i. A volcano is a mountain 

. 2. A patriot is a man . 3. Snow-drops 

are so called because . 4. A saw-mill is a mill 

. 5. A town becomes a city when . 6. A 

little fish grows into a big one if . 7. A swallow is 

called a bird of passage because . 8. At evening 

I see the stars shine overhead. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write the story of 
"The Skaters and the Wolves." 

2. Write a similar one of hunting a bear, deer, fox, or 
other wild animal. 

3. Tell about wolves. 

Rudyard Kipling's Jungle Book, Chapter I, "Mowgli's Brothers," may, with 
advantage, be read to the class. 



LESSON X. 
I. Oral Composition. — Study this picture. 





■ 


S&2BL 


.";'■■ ' '■■ * *'*T 


Wmmm 






Mh 


irons m 










"""' ' ' T " 


^'■■[P: : ---^'-^^^yi$f^0 


Si^RWSSIft^-^ 






# ■ 


' ■■.' :, ■ ■ ■ 



"Excitement." Photograph. 



FAMILIAR SCENES AND INCIDENTS. 29 

1 . Where is the place ? Who are the people ? What do 
you suppose is happening below that interests them so 
much? Tell the story, and describe vividly the probable 
incident or accident below, as you think it happened. 

2. Tell the class of any similar incident or accident. 

II. The Structure of the Sentence. — The Complex- 
Compound Type. The compound sentence may be 
modified by subordinate clauses added to it. We can 
modify the compound sentence: 

They sat on the bridge || and || watched the river below. 

by a statement of the time or place, etc. : 

They sat on the bridge || and || watched the river below, 
when suddenly something happened. 

A sentence of this type is a compound sentence, but, like 
a complex sentence, it also is modified by a dependent clause. 
It is called a complex-compound sentence. 

The complex-compound sentence may be represented: 



Exercise i. — Using any suggestions of the scene in the 
picture, make compound sentences; then add a modifying 
clause to give the complex-compound type. 

Exercise 2.— Add suitable modifying clauses to the 
following compound sentences: 1. The girl sat still and 
said nothing. 2. The leaves turn yellow and the air grows 
hazy. 3. Laugh and grow fat. 4. The dogs barked, the 
chickens flew, the children ran into the house. 5. The 
traveller had brought a lantern with him, but he lost his 

w 7 ay in the darkness. 6. The man complains most 

and is most unhappy. 



30 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Exercise 3. — (Review.) Name the kinds of sentences 
in the following — declarative, interrogative, imperative; 
state whether any of the sentences are also exclamatory: 

1. When shall we three meet again — in thunder, lightning, 
or in rain? 2. How still the air is! 3. Flow gently, 
sweet Afton. 4. Blow, bugle, blow. 5. Three wives sat 
up in the lighthouse tower. 6. Where are the songs of 
spring? 7. Go West, young man. 8. Man the life-boat ! 
9. He must have been a jovial king. 10. Bring truth that 
sways the soul of men. it. Hitch your wagon to a star. 
12. Touch not 7 taste not, handle not. 

Exercise 4. — Name the type of sentence — (1) simple, 
(2) compound, (3) complex, (4) complex-compound — each 
of the following is: 1. Brignall banks are wild and fair. 

2. The rebel rides on his raids no more. 3. Come unto 
these yellow sands and there join hands. 4. Why should 
we wait, when no man is afraid? 5. Run, jump, play, 
boys, and have a good time. 6. Up rose old Barbara 
Frietchie then. 7. I galloped, Dirck galloped, we gal- 
loped all three. 8. 'Tis the last rose of summer left 
blooming alone. 9. The city that is set upon a hill cannot 
be hid. 10. The race is not to the swift nor is the battle 
to the strong. 11. Out upon the wharfs they came, 
knight and burgher, lord and dame. 12. All that glitters 
is not gold. 13. How babies will poke those wonderful 
little fingers of theirs into every hole and crevice they can 
get at ! 14. He put in his thumb and pulled out a plum, 
and said " What a good boy am I !" 15. He that is down 
need fear no fall. 

Exercise 5. — Practice developing simple sentences into 
(1) compound, (2) complex, and (3) complex-compound. 



FAMILIAR SCENES AND INCIDENTS. 



3 1 



III. Written Composition. — i. Imagine you were 
among those shown in the picture at the head of the Les- 
son, or near them. Tell how you came there and what 
happened. Give an appropriate title to your story. 

2. Write the story of what is happening here. 




"Shipping Cotton." From copyright stereograph by Underwood & Underwood, 
permission. 



By 



CHAPTER II.-FABLES. 
LESSON XI. 

1. Oral Composition.— Study the following fable; 

A fox was once caught in a trap and lost his tail. He 
was very much ashamed of his looks. However, he 
thought of something that he might do. The foxes held 
every spring a great council. When they next met, the 
fox without a tail put forward a proposal. He proposed 
that all the foxes should cut off their tails. Tails, he said, 
were useless, and cumbersome, and ugly. The argument 
seemed good, and might have prevailed but for an old 
fox. This old fox said: " Stand up, turn round, and show 
us your tail." The fox without a tail stood up, turned 
round, and how all the other foxes did laugh at him! 

i. Suggest a title for the story. 

2. Tell the story orally, with books closed. 

3. Show how this story could be true of some person. 

II. The Structure of the Sentence.— Parts of the 
Subject. 1. The Simple or Bare Subject. The sub- 
ject may be made up of a single word. 

Foxes I are cunning. 

This is the simple subject or bare subject. 

32 



FABLES. 33 

2. Attributes. — Or the subject may be (i) pointed out. 

Those foxes I are cunning. 

Or (2) the subject may be described. 

The foxes that we read about j are cunning. 

When the simple subject is pointed out, or limited, or de- 
scribed by other words, the words that point out, or limit, 
or describe the simple subject are called its attributes or 
modifiers. 

Exercise i. — Some pupils will suggest sentences with 
simple subjects. Others will suggest attributes or modi- 
fiers of the simple subjects. 

Exercise 2. — Take the following sentences and build 
up, as fully as you can, appropriate attributes to the simple 
subjects: 1. Men work. 2. Dogs are useful. 3. Boys 
will become great men. 4. Girls are not liked. 5. Music 
is delightful. 

Exercise 3. — Point out the simple subject and its 
attributes in the following sentences: 1. A birdie with a 
yellow bill hopped upon the window-sill. 2. A hundred 
dogs bayed deep and strQng. 3. A heap of withered boughs 
was piled up. 4. This mounting wave will roll us shore- 
ward. 5. The wind from the ocean begins to blow. 6. 
Under a spreading chestnut -tree the village smithy stands, 
7. The spirit of my father, which I think is within me, 
begins to mutiny against this servitude. 8. The deep- 
mouthed bloodhound's heavy bay resounded up the narrow 
way. 9. The antlered monarch of the waste sprung from 
his heathery couch in haste. 

Exercise 4. — Point out the simple subject and its 



34 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

attributes in the sentences of the fable that begins this 
Lesson. 

Elements of Form. — Punctuation. Notice the way 
to write the exact words used by a speaker. 

The old fox said: "Stand up, turn round, and show us your 
tail." 

The punctuation signs that mark off the exact words 
quoted are called quotation-marks (" "). Giving the 
very words the speaker used, is called direct narration. 

III. Written Composition. — i. Write, with books 
closed, a title for the fable in this Lesson, then write the 
story. Or, 

2. Tell the story as if it had happened to some other 
animal or bird. Or, 

3. Tell the story so as to make it appropriate to a 
person. 

LESSON XII. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study the fable: 
Belling the Cat. 

t. The race of mice had suffered much from the cat. 

2. The cat would move secretly. The cat would watch 
silently. The cat would pounce upon them unawares. 

3. It was not fair. 4. The mice resolved to hold a council. 
The mice resolved to consider their case. 5. Many came 
to the council. All were of the same mind. 6. They 
complained of their lot. They abused the cat. 7. Some- 
thing had to be done, but what? 8. Then some one 



FABLES. 35 

thought of a plan. 9. Let us tie a bell on the cat. 10. The 
bell would ring. The bell would give us warning of the 
cat's approach. We could easily escape. 11. The mice 
squeaked " Hurrah!" 12. But one old mouse objected. 
13. " Which of us will tie the bell on the cat?" 14. That 
was a poser. The council broke up. Nothing was done. 

I. Various pupils will tell the class, from memory, the 
story of Belling the Cat, part by part, following this 
topical outline: 

(1) The title of the story. 

(2) How the mice suffered from the cat. 

(3) The council of the mice. 

(4) The plan proposed. 

(5) Why it came to nothing. 

II. The Structure of the Sentence.— The Subject 
Understood. Read the following sentences and see 
which you prefer. Note where the subject is expressed 
and where it is omitted. 

( (1) The cat would move secretly. The cat would watch 

< silently. 

( (2) The cat could move secretly and watch silently. 

C (1) I buttoned up my coat. I hurried forward. 
( (2) I buttoned up my coat and hurried forward. 

(1) The boy lay down on some hay in an outhouse, and the 
boy went to sleep, and the boy did not wake till sunrise. 

(2) The boy lay down on some hay in an outhouse, went to 
sleep, and did not waken till sunrise. 

In compound sentences where there is the same subject 
to all the predicates, the subject can often be omitted after 
the first clause. It is understood with the clauses that 
follow. 



36 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Predicate Understood, — Similarly the predicate may 
be understood. 

The mice ran away from the cat, and the rats, too {ran). Who 
ran? The rats and the mice (ran). 

Exercise i. — Do you feel anything awkward in the 
sentences of Belling the Cat? Combine into single sen- 
tences the groups of sentences of the fable numbered 2, 4, 
5, 6, 10, 14. Express as briefly as possible. Do the 
changes you make render those sentences less awkward? 
Why should they be combined sentences and not simple ? 

Exercise 2. — Give each of the following groups of sen- 
tences as one sentence and as briefly as possible: 1. The 
blacksmith goes on Sunday to the church. The black- 
smith sits among his boys. 2. The wind tosses the kites 
on high. The wind blows the birds about the sky. 3. 
Harry was climbing up into the cherry-tree. Harry fell 
down into a berry-bush. Harry scratched himself. Harry 
hurt himself. 4. The rabbit lay down in the tall grass. 
The rabbit was soon asleep. The tortoise kept on run- 
ning. 5. We crossed the creek by means of a boat. We 
ascended the high grounds on the shore. We made our 
way to the summit of a lonely hill. 6. The old people sit 
at home. The old people talk. The old people sing. 
The old people do not play at anything. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write down the four 
parts of the outline of Belling the Cat, from memory, and 
expand each part of the outline into the full story. 

2. Imitate the story by changing the animals to other 
animals, to which it might be appropriate (e. g., sheep and 
a wolf), or to persons (e. g., girls and a rude boy). 



FABLES. 



37 



LESSON XIII. 

I. Oral Composition.— Study this fable: 

A crow sat up on a high tree, holding a little cheese in 
his beak. A fox who happened to come by smelt the 
cheese, stopped, and spoke to him. "How pretty you 
look! How very fine! If your voice, Master Crow, 
comes up to your looks, there is not a bird like you in the 
bush." The crow, as he heard himself praised,, ruffled 
all over with pride. He opened his beak to sing, and, of 
course, the cheese fell to the ground. The fox pounced 
on the cheese and made off. "This will teach you," he 
said, "not to listen to flattery, and the lesson is well worth 
a cheese." 

1 . Various pupils will tell the class the story of the fable, 
part by part. 

(i) How the fox and the crow met. 

(2) The device of the fox to get the cheese from the crow. 

(3) The moral of the story. 

2 . What kind of human being was the crow like ? What 
kind of person was the fox like ? Tell the story as it might 
have happened to such people. 

3. Draw up on paper an outline of the story. 

II. Structure of the Sentence. — The Compound 
Subject. Note that we can say the same thing of several 
subjects. 

The fox, the wolf, the lion, and the ass are the favorite animals 

in fables. 
High and low, rich and poor, king and peasant, honor the honest 



man. 



38 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

How many statements are combined in each sentence? 
Observe how much shorter the sentence is than if we said : 

The fox is a favorite animal in the fables. The wolf is a favor- 
ite animal in the fables. The lion, etc. 

Two or more subjects to the same predicate make a com- 
pound subject. 

A similar means of brevity may be used with other parts 

of the sentence. 

The fox in the fable is cunning, unscrupulous, and not brave. 

The day is cold, and dark, and dreary. 

You will get either a sleigh or a pair 0} skates at Christmas. 

Elements of Form. — Punctuation. Several subjects 
with one predicate, or several predicates with one subject, 
make a series, and each part of the series requires to be 
marked in writing by a comma (,). 

The fox, the wolf, the lion, and the lamb figure in the fables. 

(But — The fox and the wolf once went a-hunting.) 
They raced, jumped, and swam. 

Exercise i. — Shorten the sentences in each of the 
following groups by using compound subjects for one 
predicate, or several predicates with one subject expressed. 
Write the sentence you get with proper punctuation of 
the series: 1. Dandelions grew in the field. Butter- 
cups grew in the field, daisies grew in the field. 2. The 
talking went on. The singing went on. The laughing 
went on. 3. Comfort is to be found in books. Con- 
solation is to be found in books. Refreshment is to be 
found in books. Happiness is to be found in books. 
4. Bessie loved flowers. Bessie loved garden flowers. 
Bessie loved wild flowers most of all. 5. The horse had 
glossy black hair. The horse had a flowing mane. The 



FABLES. 



39 



horse had a tail that grew thick and long. 6. The gar- 
dener digs the flowers. The gardener cuts the hay. The 
gardener never seems to want to play. 7. The old dog 
lies in the sun. The old dog sleeps. The old dog is now 
good for nothing. 8. We unshipped the mast. We threw 
in an extra oar. We were ready to embark. 

Exercise 2. — Point out the principal and the subordi- 
nate clauses in the following sentences. State the type of 
sentence each is — simple, compound, complex, complex- 
compound: 1. Thou art the ruin of the noblest man that 
ever lived in the tide of times. 2. If you have tears pre- 
pare to shed them now. 3. Here are a few r of the un- 
pleasantest words that ever blotted paper. 4. All that 
glitters is not gold. 5. Brutus says that Caesar was am- 
bitious, and Brutus is an honorable man. 6. Fast bind, 
fast find. 7. When you are angry, count ten before you 
speak, but when you are very angry, count a hundred. 

8. Boats sail upon the river, 

And ships sail on the seas; 
But clouds that sail across the sky 
Are prettier than these. 

9. We left behind the painted buoy 

That tosses at the harbor mouth; 
And madly danced our hearts for joy 
As fast we fleeted to the South. 

Exercise 3. — Tell the type — simple, compound, com- 
plex, or compound-complex — of each sentence in the fable 
above. 

III. Written Composition.— 1. Give a title and write, 
from memory, the fable that begins this Lesson. 

Draw pictures to illustrate your story. The first one, 



4 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

the crow holding the cheese; the second one, the fox 
making off with the cheese. 

2. Tell the story of the Wild Ducks and the Frog. 

The wild ducks were flying south. A frog asked them 
to take him with them. " How ?" asked the ducks. " You 
can't fly." The frog told them to get a stick; a duck was 
to hold either end; he would hold on to the middle. They 
start. On the way they fly over a field where men are 
working. The men look up — see the device. " I call that 
clever," said one. "I wonder who thought of it," said 
the other. "I did," said the frog, and fell to the ground 
and was killed. Moral. 

LESSON XIV. 

I. Oral Composition.— Study this fable: 

Once upon a time a fox invited a crane to supper. When 
the crane arrived he found that the fox had for supper only 
soup, which he had put in a very flat dish. The crane 
with his long bill could get nothing. The fox lapped up 
everything in the dish, and thought himself a very clever 
fellow. 

After a while the crane invited the fox to supper. When 
the fox arrived he found that the crane had for supper only 
soup, which he served in a long jar with a very narrow 
neck. The crane with his long narrow bill made a very 
good dinner. But the fox found that he could not put his 
head into the neck of the jar, and so he got nothing. He 
went away quite crestfallen, thinking that perhaps he was 
not such a very clever fellow after all, and that sometimes 
people are paid back in their own coin. 



FABLES. 4 I 

1 . Several pupils tell the story to the class in parts : 

(1) 1. The fox's invitation to the crane — What did he say? 

What did the crane answer? 

2. The fox's preparations for supper — What did he want to 

do? How did he go about it? 

3. The fox's supper — What did the crane expect? What 

did he find? How did he fare? How did the fox 
fare ? What did the fox think of himself ? 

(2) 1. The crane's invitation to the fox — What did he say? 

What did the fox reply? 

2. The crane's preparations for supper — What did he want 

to do ? How did he set about it ? 

3. The crane's supper — What did the fox expect? What 

did he find? How did he fare? How did the crane 
fare ? What did the fox, then, think of himself ? What 
did the crane think of the whole matter? 

2. Suppose two boys like the fox and the crane, imagine 
what similar story you could tell of them. 

II. The Structure of the Sentence. — Parts of the 
Predicate. — The Verb and Modifiers. We have al- 
ready seen that the sentence has two main parts (1) the 
thing we speak of, called the subject, and (2) what we say 
of the subject, called the predicate. Has the predicate 
any parts ? Note that we can say : 

The fox I J came. 
The fox || came to supper. 
The fox || once upon a time came to supper at the crane's house. 

It will be seen that one word may be the predicate, 
i. e., one word may assert and tell what is asserted (e. g., 
The fox came). 

It will also be seen that the essential word (came) of 
the predicate — the word by which we make the assertion 



42 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

— may be accompanied by other words (to supper, once 
upon a time, etc.) that limit or modify it, to show place, 
time, cause, manner. 

Thus the predicate may be made up of parts: I. The 
essential asserting word or words — the bare predicate — 
which we call the verb, and 2. The words that limit or 
modify or complete the assertion, which we call the mod- 
ifiers. 

Exercise i . — Point out in the fable above the modifiers 
of time and place and manner. 

Exercise 2. — Modify in every sort of way each of the 
following assertions. State with each whether the modi- 
fier is of the nature of time, place, distance, direction, 
manner, cause, etc. 1. The fox ran. 2. The rain fell. 
3. The wind blew. 4. The child was crying. 5. The 
boys are laughing. 

Exercise 3. — (1) Tell which words are the subject and 
which the predicate in the following sentences. (2) Then 
distinguish between the verb and its different modifiers in 
each predicate: 1. I stood on the bridge at midnight. 
2. The boy ran away to sea. 3. The little brook bickers 
down the valley. 4. The slave hid in a cave. 5. After a 
while he was awakened by a great noise. 6. The slave 
and the lion lived together as friends for many years. 7. 
The breaking waves dashed high on the rock-bound coast. 
8. The dew on the grass is often still wet at noon. 9. 
Then came the sound of the hunting-dogs. 10. One day 
a tree fell with a great crash. 11. The splendor falls on 
castle walls and hoary summits old in story. 

Exercise 4. — Add various appropriate modifiers to the 
predicate in each of the following sentences: 1. We 



FABLES. 43 

sat . 2. The hounds bayed . 3. A heap of 

withered boughs was piled . 4. The gale blew the 

ship . 5. Wheat is sown and harvested 

. 6. Look . 7. The preparations for our 

cruise were made . 8. Do not be misled . 

o. The sun set . 10. The moon rose . 



III. Written Composition. — 1. Write the story of the 
fable of this Lesson, first giving it a title. 

Draw pictures to go with your story. Notice in writing 
how the two parts of the story are shown by arranging 
the sentences in two groups or paragraphs. Imitate 
this arrangement in your own writing. 

2. Imitate the fable, changing the fox and crane to other 
appropriate animals. Or, change the characters to cor- 
responding persons, and tell the story of them. 

3. Think out the details of each scene in the following, 
and then write the story as it might have happened: For 
the want of a nail the shoe was lost. For the want of the 
shoe a horse was lost. For the want of the horse a rider 
was lost. For the want of the rider a battle was lost. For 
the want of the battle a kingdom was lost. And all for the 
want of a horseshoe nail. 

LESSON XV. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study this fable: 

The Frog and the Ox. 

A family of frogs once lived quite happy and contented 
in a pond in the meadow. One day the youngest of them 
all saw an ox by the pond and had a very bad fright. He 



44 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

swam off to his father and croaked out: "Oh, father! such 
a horrible monster has been drinking out of our pond! 
It was as big as a house, it had huge horns on its head, and 
a long tail, and big feet split in two." 

"My child," said the old frog, "that was nothing very 
terrible. It was only farmer Jones's ox just come home 
from the ploughing. He may be a bit taller than I, but 
as for breadth I can do as well as he! Look at me!" 
And the old frog puffed himself out, and puffed himself 
up, and said, "Was he as big as I am now?" "Oh, ever 
so much bigger," said the youngster, staring at his father 
with his goggle-eyes. The old frog blew himself out again, 
and said, "Now, was he anything like as big as this?" 
"Oh, father," was the answer, "he was very much bigger 
than that." With that the old frog, somewhat provoked, 
took a tremendous breath, and swelled and blew again, 
and kept on till he called out confidently, "Now, look 
here; he wasn't as big as this?" But just at that point 
he burst. Wasn't he a foolish frog! 

1. Describe a pond. Describe a frog. What would a 
little frog think of an ox? Why did the old frog try to 
make himself big? Why was he a foolish frog? 

2. How many parts are there to this story? How do 
the paragraphs show the parts? 

3. What people can you think of who are like the old 
frog? 

4. Where does the story give the exact words the speaker 
said? Notice how the exact words said are punctuated. 
What name is given to that way of stating the words of a 
speaker ? 



FABLES. 



45 



II. The Structure of the Sentence.— Subject and 
Object. Study the sentence: 

The ox had horns. 

Something is asserted here about the ox; the ox is the 
subject of the assertion. We also assert what the ox had 
< — horns; this is the object of the verb. 

Exercise i. — Show the subject and the object in the 
following sentences: i. The youngest frog saw an ox by 
the pond. 2. The old frog puffed himself out again. 

3. The foolish frog once more took a tremendous breath. 

4. Where did the little frog see the ox? 5. The ox stood 
by the pond drinking and frightened the little frog. 

Notice the different forms the object of the verb may take: 

The frogs saw an ox. 

The old frog puffed himself and said "My! my!" 
The old frog saw that it was just Farmer Jones's ox. 
The little frog croaked out, "Come, father, quick!" 

Ask the question of the subject — What did the frog see, 
puff, say, etc., and the answer is the object of the verb. 

Exercise 2. — Find out the objects of any verbs used 
in the fable above. 

Exercise 3. — Why is it that some verbs have objects 
and others have none ? 

Exercise 4. — Make sentences with verb and object 
about (1) What boys do. (2) What girls do. (3) What 
horses do. 

Exercise 5. — Make sentences with subject and object 
using the following as verbs. Example — learn — We learnt 
our lesson easily. 1. Write. 2. Strike. 3. Seek. 4. Finish. 

5. Paint. 6. Imagine. 7. Forget. 8. Remember. 9. Recollect. 



46 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Exercise 6. — Point out the object of the verb in each 
of the following sentences: i. Then all arose and said 
good-night. 2. Have something to say and say it. 3. 
When you have nothing to say, say nothing. 4. Get 
knowledge, but, above all, get understanding. 5. The 
robin and the blue-bird filled all the blooming orchard with 
their glee. 6. They learned to read and to write and to 
cipher. 7. They learned how to skate. 8. Enoch Arden 
purchased his own boat and made a home for Annie. 9. 
Margery looked in at the shop-window, and thought how 
pretty the jewelry was. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write out, from mem- 
ory, the story of "The Frog and the Ox." 

Tell the story in two parts. Put the sentences of each 
part into one group or paragraph. Indent the para- 
graphs (see p. 10). 

Make the characters speak, and put the exact words 
they say in quotation-marks. Watch carefully how you 
punctuate your compound and complex sentences. 

2. Change the animals to others appropriate, and then 
tell the story. 

3. Change the animals to people and tell the story. 

LESSON XVI. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study the story of: 

The Wise Men and the Elephant. 

Once upon a time six blind men wanted to know what 
an elephant was like. They went to the circus and asked 
the elephant's keeper to let them touch the great beast. 



FABLES. 47 

Said the first, groping along the elephant's side, "Now 
I understand. An elephant is very like a wall." But 
the second put his hand on the tusk, and feeling it smooth 
and sharp at the tip, said, "Not at all. He is more 
like a spear than anything else." The third caught the 
swinging trunk and he laughed at the others. "This 
elephant," he said, "is just like a snake." The fourth 
man, however, had stooped down and was feeling the 
elephant's leg. "It is plain to me," he said, "that he 
is round and tall and very like a tree." "No, no," 
said the fifth, who was a tall man and had chanced 
to catch the elephant's great ear, "he is like a huge 
fan. Any one can tell that." "A fan!" said the sixth 
one, who had managed to get his hand on the tail, "you 
have lost your senses. He is like a rope and like nothing 
else." 

All the way home they quarrelled, and whenever they 
talk of elephants they quarrel afresh, and each calls the 
other names because no one else will agree with him that 
the elephant is like a wall or a spear, or a snake, or a tree, 
or a fan, or a rope! 

1. What is a circus? What happens when it comes to 
town ? Describe an elephant. What is an elephant like ? 
What was wrong with the six blind men's minds that they 
made the mistakes they did? 

2. Let seven pupils tell the story aloud from memory. 
One pupil will begin it, the next six will each tell the 
story of one of the blind men, and the first pupil will give 
the end of the story. 



48 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

3. Study the following fables. Imagine the full story — 
what the characters say, etc., and tell it to the class: 

1. The elephant thought he could help his friend the 
dog and brushed off a fly that was tormenting the dog. 
What happened to the dog? An injudicious friend is 
dangerous. 

2. Some boys amused themselves by throwing stones at 
the frogs. "What may be sport to you/' said a frog, "is 
death to us." 

3. The woodman borrowed a handle for his axe from the 
forest. Then he set to work to cut down the trees of the 
forest. 

II. The Structure of the Sentence. — Direct Object. 

Some verbs have two objects. Observe: 

The keeper | showed the elephant 

Aunt Martha | made a present 

Mary | gave the book 



Charlie | lent his reader 

The object in each of these sentences is the direct object 
of the action expressed by the verb. This kind of object 
is called the direct object. 

Indirect Object.— Suppose there is another object of 
the whole action — the person interested. 

The keeper | showed the elephant to the blind men. 
Aunt Martha | made a present to all her nieces. 
Mary | gave the book to me. 
Charlie | lent his reader to Douglas. 

This secondary object of the action {men, nieces, me, Doug- 
las)— the person interested, or to whom the object passes — is 
called the indirect object. 



FABLES. 



49 



The indirect object is often preceded by to or jor; but 
when the indirect object is put before the direct object, to 
or jor is often omitted. 

Mary gave the book to me. Mary gave me the book. 
Mr. Smith promised a sleigh to his son (or, his son a sleigh). 

Exercise i. — Find any objects of verbs in the fable 
above. 

Exercise 2. — Compose sentences (oral) using the fol- 
lowing verbs with direct and indirect objects: -i. Write. 
2. Leave. 3. Rent. 4. Pass. 5. Pay. 6. Offer. 7. Re- 
fuse. 8. Pardon. 9. Promise. 

Exercise 3. — In the following sentences some of the 
verbs have objects and others have not. Point out the 
objects: 1. Last night the moon had a golden ring. 2. 
Behind the clouds is the sun still shining. 3. Let us con- 
sider what is best to be done. 4. Never mind what he 
says. 5. They grew in beauty side by side. 6. They 
filled one home with glee. 7. They fished all day and 
caught nothing. 8. The children ask for bread but they 
get a stone. 9. Who drives fat oxen should himself be fat. 
10. I have fought a good fight, I have finished my course, 
I have kept the faith. 11. That got me the victory. 

Exercise 4. — In the following sentences some of the 
objects are direct and some are indirect. Point out the 
objects and tell which are direct and which are indirect: 
1. Do not give advice to a drowning man. 2. The little 
birds told the mother bird all the news. 3. Blow, bugle, 
blow, set the wild echoes flying. 4. O blackbird ! sing me 
something well. 5. Build me a ship, master shipwright. 
6. God in his mercy lend her grace, the Lady of Shalott. 



50 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

7. Give us this day our daily bread. 8. The sailor boy 
reached the ship and caught the rope and whistled to the 
morning star. 9. Tell me not in mournful numbers life 
is but an empty dream. 10. The foolish boy will not hear 
what is said to him nor see what is shown him. 

III. Written Composition.— 1. Tell, from memory, 
the story of the Six Wise Men and the Elephant. 

Add any details you can to account for the comparison 
each man makes. Give the words of the speaker as you 
suppose he actually spoke, and write them in quotation- 
marks. 

Note. — If you put in "he said," observe how the quotation-marks must be 
arranged: "This elephant," he said, " is just like a snake." 



LESSON XVII. 
I. Oral Composition. — Study this fable: 

Once a bird made her nest in a wheat-field. By the 
time that the young ones were hatched, the grain had be- 
come ripe. " Keep your ears open," said the mother bird 
to the nestlings, "and tell me every day everything you 
hear said when I am away." 

Soon after that the farmer came to look at his field. He 
saw that it was ready to cut. "I will get my neighbors," 
he said, "to come and help me cut it." The young ones 
were frightened, and when their mother came home they 
told her what the farmer had said. "We have time 
enough to move yet," said the mother quietly, "when a 
man trusts to his neighbors to get in his harvest. But tell 
me what the farmer says when he comes again." 



FABLES. 51 

The next day, the farmer and his son appeared. The 
wheat was still riper. But there were no neighbors there 
to help him. "Well, well!" said the farmer, "I will send 
over to Brother William and Cousin John, and get them to 
help me to-morrow." The little ones were still more 
frightened, and told their mother the news. "Don't 
mind," said she. "The man who trusts to his relatives 
won't cut much wheat. But be sure to tell me what he 
says if he comes again." 

Next day the farmer and his son came again. But 
neither Brother William nor Cousin John appeared. The 
wheat was dead ripe. "See here, son," said the farmer, 
"you go hire a couple of men; tell them to be here to- 
morrow; and, anyway, we two will set to w T ork at this field 
at daylight." The little ones told their mother the news. 
"Children," she said, "it is time to be off. The man has 
determined to do something himself and not wait for others. 
Now the wheat-field will be cut." 

1 . What name shall we give to this fable ? What lesson 
does it teach? Why did the bird choose a field of wheat 
to make her nest in ? What kind of birds build their nests 
on the ground? What danger was her nest exposed to? 
How did she know when it was dangerous for her young ? 
What did she do to learn of approaching danger? How 
did the news first come to the mother bird ? Why did she 
despise it? How did the news next come to her? Why 
did she not mind the second warning ? Why did she mind 
the third warning? 

2. How many parts are there to the fable? Give a 
name to eath. How many groups of sentences are there 



52 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

in the story ? Does each group of sentences correspond 
to a part of the story? 

3. We call a group of sentences that treats of one sub- 
ject or one distinct part of a subject a paragraph. Notice 
how many paragraphs there are to this fable, and why. 
Notice that the first line of each paragraph is indented, and 
give the reason. 

II. The Structure of the Sentence.— Parts of the 
Predicate. — Predicate Complement. Usually attri- 
butes accompany the words to which they belong. 

Ripe grain. My neighbors. Six blind men. 

Good and faithful friends. Cold days, dark and miserable. 

But we can ascribe these attributes to the things they refer 
to by an assertion in a statement. 

The wheat I is ripe. Friends | are good and faithful. 
The grain I became (grew, turned, seemed) ripe. Keep your 
ears open. 

Notice that the attribute is here in the predicate; it is part 
of the assertion, it completes the assertion. An attribute 
so used is called the complement of the predicate, or 
predicate complement. 

In the same way we may have .noun complements like : 

William | was the farmer's brother. 
The Englishman's house | is his castle. 
Or even adverbs: 

The time I is now. My brother | is here. 

This use of the modifier differs from the more usual use 
(see p. 42). In the sentence John is running here — the 
assertion John is running is modified by here. But in the 
sentence John is here — is here is the assertion itself. 



FABLES. 



53 



Notice that certain verbs always have objects: 
John struck James. The trees bear jruit. 
but certain other verbs require complements. 
John is sick. The apples taste sour. 

Exercise i. — Take any attribute used in the fable 
above, and assert it: e. g. t the young birds: the birds are 
young. 

Exercise 2. — Complete the predicates in the following 

by attributes : 1. The way was and . 2. The 

heat of the day was . 3. The dust lay on 

the road. 4. The horses grew and — . 5. But 

soon the wind blew and from the sea. 

6. The air turned . 

Exercise 3. — Point out the complements of the verbs 
in the following: 1. Those grapes are sour. 2. Stolen 
waters are sweet, said the fool, and bread eaten in secret 
is pleasant. 3. In autumn the leaves turn yellow and red 
and fall off. 4. Everything is happy now. 5. They grew 
desperate and became pirates. 6. A faithful friend is a 
strong defence. 7. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 
8. Great is truth and mighty above all things. 9. The way 
was long, the wind was cold, the minstrel was infirm and 
old. 

Exercise 4. — In the fable of this Lesson point out (1) 
several complements of verbs; (2) several objects of verbs; 
(3) several modifiers of time, place, etc. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write from memory 
the story of the fable. Write the title for the fable. 
Tell the story in four parts and each part in a para- 



54 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

graph. Indent the first line of each paragraph. Take 
care to write the exact words anyone says (direct narra- 
tion) in quotation-marks. 

Study the following summaries of fables. Go over 
them in memory. See if you can make them more vivid, 
more interesting. Add details of the scene and the cir- 
cumstances. Write the story as if you were telling it to 
the class. Add a good title. 

2. The Milkmaid. The farmer's daughter fancied she 
would sell a pail of milk, buy eggs, raise chickens, sell 
chickens, buy a dress r attract admiring suitors, but acci- 
dentally overturns her pail of milk. Good-by eggs, 
chickens, dress, sweethearts! 

Make the story interesting by entering into the spirit of it. Imagine you had 
seen the incident, and were telling the story with animation to others. 

3. Tell the story of the Goose and the Golden Eggs. 
The farmer — his goose — it began to lay golden eggs — 
but it laid only one a day — he became rich with selling the 
eggs — grew greedy — wanted a lot of the eggs all at once — 
killed the goose — found no eggs inside — had to console 
himself with roast goose for dinner. 

Tennyson's* version of this story in the poem entitled "The Goose" may, 
with advantage, be read to the class. 

4. A farmer once found his wagon stuck in the mire. 
He besought Hercules {her' kew leez) to help him. Hercu- 
les told him to put his shoulder to the wheel. Whom does 
heaven help? 

5. A thirsty crow found a big pitcher with a little water 
in it. Try as she would she could not reach the water. 
Finally she began dropping pebbles into the pitcher and 



FABLES. 55 

raised the water to where she could drink. Necessity is 
the mother of invention. 

6. A shepherd boy used to rouse the village by crying 
"Wolf! wolf!" when there was no wolf. Then he would 
laugh at the people when they rushed to his assistance. 
One time there came a real wolf. The boy cried "Wolf! 
wolf!" but nobody believed him, and the wolf carried off 
a lamb. Liars are not believed even when they speak the 
truth. 

7. Tell, from memory, the story of: 

The Larch and the Oak. 

"What is the use of thee, thou gnarled sapling?" said 
a young larch-tree to a young oak. "I grow three feet 
in a year, thou scarcely so many inches ; I am straight and 
taper as a reed, thou straggling and twisted as a loosened 
withe." And thy duration," answered the oak, "is some 
third part of man's life, and I am appointed to flourish 
for a thousand years. Thou art felled and sawed into 
paling, where thou rottest, and art burned after a single 
summer; of me are fashioned battleships, and I carry 
mariners and heroes into unknown seas." The richer the 
nature, the harder and slower its development. 

— By Thomas Carlyle. 



CHAPTER III.— FOLK-LORE AND 
FAIRY-TALES. 

LESSON XVIII. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study the story of: 

The Man in the Moon. 

Everybody has seen and heard of the man in the moon. 
In Germany they say that one Sunday morning, long, long 
ago, an old man went into the forest to cut sticks. When 
he had tied a faggot, he slung it over his shoulder and 
started back to his home. On his way back he met a 
handsome man in a Sunday suit who was walking to 
church. This man said to the old woodcutter: "Do you 
not know that this is Sunday on earth, when all must rest 
from their labors?" "Sunday on earth, or Monday in 
heaven, it is all the same to me!" laughed the woodcutter 
carelessly. "Then bear your bundle forever," answered 
the stranger. "As you do not care for Sunday on earth, 
you shall have a perpetual Moon-day in heaven. You 
shall stay forever in the moon, to warn all those who will 
not rest from work on Sunday." The stranger vanished 
and the woodcutter was caught up into the moon. There 
you may see him, any time the moon is full, bending 
under his faggot and leaning on his staff. 

Exercise i. — Use the following words in sentences of 
your own: i. Germany. 2. long ago. 3. forest. 4. to 
sling. 5. start back. 6. handsome. 7. woodcutter. 8. 
labor. 9. perpetual. 10. faggot. 

56 



FOLK-LORE AND FAIRY-TALES. 



57 



Exercise 2. — Tell, from memory, the story of the Man 
in the Moon. 

Exercise 3. — Study the following fables. Imagine the 
details — what the characters said and did. Tell the fable 
to the class. 

1. Once a man tried to break a bundle of sticks. He 
could not. He took the sticks apart and broke them one 
by one. How should we conquer difficulties ? 

2. A candle, proud of the light it gave in the room, 
boasted that it shone brighter than the stars or even the 
moon. The window was open, the wind blew in, and out 
went the candle. But the stars kept on shining. 

3. The hare and the tortoise (turtle) ran a race. The 
tortoise kept jogging on. The hare, despising her rival, 
thought she would take a sleep. She overslept herself 
and arrived at the goal just too late. Who wins the race ? 

II. The Structure of the Sentence. — Its Parts, We 
are now able to classify the parts of the sentence. These 
are: the subject and its attributes; the verb, its objects or 
complements, and its modifiers of time, place, etc. 

Structure of the Simple Sentence. — Thus the simple 
sentence (p. 15): 

The old woodcutter on his way back met a handsome man. 

may be analyzed formally: 



Subject. 


Predicate. 


Bare Subject. 


Attributes. 


Verb. 


Objects or 
Complements. 


Modifiers. 


WOODCUTTER 


the old 


MET a handsome 
man 


on his way 
back 



58 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Exercise i. — (Oral.) Make simple sentences on the 
story of the Man in the Moon and analyze them. 

Exercise 2. — Similarly analyze the following simple 
sentences. See that they are in the usual grammatical 
order before analyzing them: 1. Old Nokomis nursed the 
little Hiawatha. 2. There the ancient arrow-maker made 
his arrow-heads. 3. Old fashions please me best. 4. He 
nailed his colors to the mast. 5. The sun no longer op- 
pressed us with its glare. 6. The tired boy lay down on 
the hay. 7. The crow up in the tree had a piece of cheese 
in its beak. 8. Morning, noon, and night her tongue was 
going incessantly. 9. Many years ago the Pied Piper came 
to Hamelin. 10. Hamelin, a town in Brunswick, was in- 
fested with rats. 11. He tied the faggot on his back. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write the story of the 
Man in the Moon. 

Make an outline of a full moon, shade the figure we can 
fancy there. Use it with your story. 

2. Tell the story of the adventures you imagine the boy 
or girl to have had, who went hunting for the pot of gold 
buried at the foot of the rainbow. 

3. Tell about one of the following myths: 1. The 
Sphinx. 2. The Phoenix. 3. The Pelican. 4. The Uni- 
corn. 5. The Basilisk. 

LESSON XIX. 

I. Oral Composition.— Study the story of: 

Jack of Cornwall. 

In the days of good King Arthur there lived in Cornwall 
a lad named Jack. He was a brave boy, and his ambition 



FOLK-LORE AND FAIRY-TALES. 59 

was to kill the giants who lived on the mountain heights 
and harassed the people who dwelt in the village and plains 
below. Jack had killed three or four of these giants when 
he heard of an enchanted castle, kept by a wicked giant and 
a bad fairy. They seized the people of the valleys and 
carried them up to their castle and turned them into 
beasts and birds. 

Jack determined to go to the rescue. He put on his 
magic coat, that made him invisible, and thus was able 
to climb up the mountain to the castle gate without being 
discovered. On the outer gate he saw a trumpet hanging, 
and under the trumpet were written these lines : 

"Whoever can this trumpet blow, 
Shall cause the giant's overthrow." 

Jack boldly seized the trumpet and blew a shrill blast. 
As he blew, the gates flew open and the castle shook. The 
giant and the fairy who were within heard the sound of 
the trumpet and quaked with fear. Jack rushed into the 
castle and killed the giant with his sharp sword, but the 
bad fairy flew away in a high wind and disappeared. 
The people who had been changed into birds and beasts 
returned to their own shape, and rejoiced greatly at their 
deliverance. 

Jack's fame spread through all the land. They called 
him Jack the Giant-killer, and the King gave him great 
rewards. 

1. Tell something about each of these: 1. good King 
Arthur. 2. a giant. 3. a castle. 4. blowing a trumpet. 
5. rewards. 

2. Re-state the following sentences, but use other words 



6o 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



to express the meaning of the italicized words: i. He heard 
of an enchanted castle. 2. Jack determined to go to the 
rescue, 3. Jack boldly seized the trumpet. 4. He blew a 
shrill blast. 5. The giant and the fairy quaked with fear. 
6. Jack's fame spread through all the land. 

3. 1. Tell what Jack's ambition was. 2. Tell how Jack 
reached the giant's castle without being seen. 3. Why 
had no one blown the trumpet before ? 

II. The Structure of the Compound Sentence. — Its 
Parts. The compound sentence (p. 19) may be analyzed 
as two or more simple sentences. If subject or predicate 
is understood, it may be inserted in brackets [ ] as under- 
stood (see p. 35). Thus we can analyze the following 
compound sentences: 

1. Jack boldly seized the trumpet and blew a shrill blast. 

2. The wicked giant and the bad fairy seized the people of the 
valleys and carried them to their castle. 



Kind of 


Subject. 


Predicate. 


Sentence. 


Bare 
Subject. 


Attributes. 


Verb. 


Objects or 
Complements 


Modifiers. 


I - Compound. 

Link-word 
and 


Jack 
[Jack] 




seized 
blew 


the trumpet 
a shrill blast 


boldly 


2 - Compound. 

Link-word 
and 


giant 

(and) 
fairy 

[giant] 
[fairy] 


the wicked 
the bad 


seized 

car- 
ried 


the people of 
the valleys 

them 


1. up 

2. to their 
castle 



FOLK-LORE AND FAIRY-TALES. 6l 

Exercise i. — Find any compound sentences in the 
faole above. 

Exercise 2.— Make compound sentences telling about 
(1) any two things Jack did; or (2) any two things the 
giant and fairy did. 

Exercise 3. — Rule the form of analysis above and 
analyze the following compound sentences: 1. Byron 
awoke one morning and found himself famous. 2. God 
made the country and man made the town. 3. God is a 
good worker, but He loves to be helped. 4. Jack Frost 
climbed up the trees and dressed their branches with 
diamonds and pearls. 5. He went to the mountain and 
powdered its crest. 6. You must respect yourself and 
then others will respect you. 7. Give us this day our daily 
bread and forgive us our trespasses. 8. The fair breeze 
blew, the white foam flew, the furrow followed free. 9. 
Work and despair not. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write, from memory, 
the story of Jack of Cornwall. 

2. Tell one of the following legends: 1. Red Riding- 
Hood. 2. Jack and the Beanstalk. 3. Tom Thumb. 4. 
Puss-in-Boots. 

3. What is your favorite story about fairies or giants? 
Write it out. 

LESSON XX. 

J. Oral Composition. — Study the story of: 

The Fool of the Family. 

Once upon a time a king sent tw r o of his sons out to see 
the world, but he kept at home his youngest son, who 



62 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

seemed so stupid that they called him Blockhead. The 
two sons stayed away a long time, and the king grew 
uneasy, and sent Blockhead in search of them. He found 
them still on their travels, and concluded to make the 
journey with them. 

As they went on they passed an ant-hill. The brothers 
would have tramped over it, but Blockhead said, "Step 
aside, let the poor little creatures have their home." Next 
they came to a lake where ducks were swimming. Said 
the brothers, "Let us catch a pair and have a fine hot 
dinner." But Blockhead said, "No, the ducks love 
their life as well as you." Then they saw a bees' nest, 
and the brothers wanted to take the honey. But Block- 
head said, "No, the bees would starve in winter." 
And they went on, grumbling at his soft-heartedness. 

Toward evening they reached a castle and went in. 
There was no one to be seen, and the castle looked strange 
and enchanted. At last they found a table with three 
inscriptions on it. Thus they learnt that the castle was 
enchanted, and that whoever came into the castle must do 
three things or be turned into stone. The first thing he 
must do was to pick up in a day the thousand pearls 
hidden under the moss of the wood. Off went the eld- 
est brother to try his luck, but by the next sunset he 
had only a hundred pearls, and he was turned into 
stone. The next day the second brother tried to find 
the pearls, but two hundred was the best he could do, 
and, he, too, was turned into stone. It was then Block- 
head's turn. He scratched in the moss awhile, and sat 
down to cry about it. Then who should come up but 
the king of the ant-hill with five thousand ants, and it 



FOLK-LORE AND FAIRY-TALES. 63 

did not take them long to pile up the thousand pearls for 
Blockhead. 

The next thing was to find the key of a room in the castle 
where three princesses were lying in a magic sleep. It 
had been thrown into the lake where they had seen the 
ducks. The grateful ducks dived to the bottom and 
quickly brought the key up for Blockhead. 

The third trial was the hardest of all. When Block- 
head opened the door of the room of the three Princesses, 
there they lay sound asleep and covered up closely. And 
he had to pick out the youngest and prettiest. All he had 
learnt about them was that before they fell asleep they had 
each had something sweet — the oldest a lump of sugar, 
the second a spoonful of sirup, and the youngest a bit of 
honey-comb. But how to tell which from which ? Then 
in at the window came the queen bee and settled on the 
lips of the one w T ho had eaten honey. So Blockhead knew 
the right Princess, and waked her up. 

At that very instant the evil spell on the castle was 
broken, the other Princesses woke up, too, and even the 
stone brothers. were changed into flesh and blood. Block- 
head was given the castle and the country about it for a 
reward, and reigned there with the youngest Princess for 
his Queen, loved by everyone and on the best of terms 
with ants, and ducks, and bees. 

1. Give another title to the story that would suggest 
what happened to the Fool of the Family. 

2. How did Blockhead come to go on his travels? In 
what ways did he differ in character from his brothers? 
Was Blockhead merely soft-hearted ? Describe the en- 



6 4 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



chanted castle. Give, as if you were reading them, the 
first, then the second, then the third inscription. Tell how 
the first trial tested the two brothers. Tell how Block- 
head stood the test. Tell what his reward was. 

3. What story like this could be told of three boys in 
an American family? 

4. Tell, briefly, the meaning of these: 1. Once upon a 
time a king had three sons. 2. The king sent Blockhead 
in search of his brothers. 3. He found them on their 
travels. 4. The ducks love their life. 5. The castle looked 
enchanted. 6. The brother was turned into stone. 7. The 
Princess was lying in a magic sleep. 8. The evil spell on 
the castle was broken. 9. Blockhead lived on the best of 
terms with the birds. 

II. The Structure of the Complex Sentence. — Its 
Parts. The complex sentence (pp. 26, 27) is analyzed as 
one simple sentence and one or more subordinate sentences. 
For example : 

As the brothers went on, they passed an ant-hill. 



Kind of 


Subject. 


Predicate. 


Sentence. 


Bare 
Subject. 


Attri- 
butes. 


Verb. 


Objects or 
Complements 


Modifiers. 


Complex. 

Subordinate 

Link -word. 

as 


they 
Clause— 

brothers 


the 


passed 
went 


an ant-hill 


Subord. CI. — 
"as . . . on" 

on 



FOLK-LORE AND FAIRY-TALES. 65 

Exercise i . — Find any complex sentences in " The Fool 
of the Family." 

Exercise 2. — (Oral.) Make up for practice several 
complex sentences on the characters or incidents of "The 
Fool of the Family.' ' 

Exercise 3. — Draw the diagram above, and in it ana- 
lyze the following: 1. After it was dark, we paddled silently 
down in our canoes. 2. I caught through the branches a 
gleam of blue, which at first seemed the distant sky. 3. 
They went off down where the raspberries grow, by the 
old pasture-field, 4. Fools rush in where angels fear to 
tread. 5, I hear a voice that is speaking in the wind. 
6. Hero-worship endures forever while man endures. 7, A 
man never appreciates ashes until he slips on the ice. 

8. Behind went a good old dog whose name was Ben. 

9. He who goes slowly goes safely. 10. Once upon a time 
lived a little girl who had a fairy godmother. 

III. Written Composition.— 1. Write, from memory, 
the story of "The Fool of the Family." 

Draw up a topical outline of the story. Show the para- 
graph arrangement in the outline and make your para- 
graphs, when written, correspond to the parts of the story. 

2. Tell the story of three American boys and how the 
Fool of the Family came to his own in the end. 

The poem "Mother's Fool" (anonymous, in "The Speaker's Garland") 
may, with advantage, be read to the class. 



66 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



LESSON XXI. 
I. Oral Composition. — Study this fairy tale. 

Once upon a time a man who had a beautiful young 

daughter lost his wife 
and married again. 
His new wife had two 
daughters, proud and 
ugly and unkind, and 
all three of them 
treated the beautiful 
daughter very harshly. 
They made her wash 
the dishes and pots, 
and build the fires, and 
clean up the ashes, and 
people in contempt 
called her Cinderella. 
Once the Prince 
gave a party and in- 
vited all the ladies 
of the land to come to it. The stepmother and her daugh- 
ters dressed themselves in beautiful clothes, and went off 
in a carriage to the ball. But poor Cinderella had to stay 
at home. She was sitting by the fire crying, when she 
heard a strange noise in the chimney, and a queer little 
woman came down out of it. It was her fairy godmother. 
Cinderella told her all her story. "You shall go to the 
ball," she said. She touched Cinderella's ragged clothes 
with her fairy wand, and they became a lovely silver dress; 




'Cinderella." Painting by H. Le Jeune. 



FOLK-LORE AND FAIRY-TALES. 67 

her shoes, and they were glass slippers; a pumpkin in the 
kitchen, and it was a carriage; some rats, and they w r ere 
horses and coachman and footman. And away Cinder- 
ella went to the party. " But be sure," said the fairy god- 
mother, "you come away before twelve o'clock." 

At the ball everyone admired the beautiful young girl, 
and wondered who she was. The Prince danced only 
with her. She was so happy that she forgot about the 
time till she heard the clock striking twelve. Then she 
remembered and rushed aw r ay. The Prince hastened after 
her, but at the door he saw only a ragged girl running, and 
found only a glass slipper, which Cinderella had dropped 
in her flight on the step. 

Next day the Prince went everywhere trying to find the 
wearer of the glass slipper. Many claimed it, but it would 
not fit them. The two proud daughters both tried it on, 
but it was too small. One cut off her toe, one a slice of 
her heel, but still the slipper would not fit. The Prince 
made even Cinderella try it on. It fitted her foot per- 
fectly, and she showed him, too, the other slipper. At 
that, the fairy godmother suddenly appeared. She touched 
Cinderella's rags and they became a beautiful silver 
wedding-dress. The Prince rode away with her, and she 
became his bride, and they lived happily ever after. 

1. Tell who Cinderella was. What does her name 
mean? Why did her stepmother treat her harshly? 
What did the girl have to do? Why was she unhappy? 
Why did they not have Cinderella go to the party ? What 
is a fairy like? How is she dressed? What is a fairy 
godmother? What is a fairy wand? Describe Cinder- 
ella as she went to the tall. What is the nature of fairy 



68 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



transformations? Describe the ball. Describe Cinder- 
ella's reception by different people. Why did she forget 
about the time ? What transformation took place ? What 
did the Prince determine to do ? Where did he go ? Tell 
about the ugly daughters trying on the slipper. What did 
their mother tell them to do ? Tell of Cinderella's trying 
on the slipper. Tell what the Prince did. 

2 . Note the parts of the story. See if each part is told in a 
separate paragraph. Imitate this when you write the story. 

II. The Structure of the Complex-Compound Sen- 
tence. — Its Parts. The complex-compound sentence 
(p. 29) is analyzed as a compound sentence with a sub- 
ordinate clause or clauses. For example: 

Once upon a time a man who had a beautiful daughter lost his 
wife and married again. 



Kind of 


Subject. 


Predicate. 


Sentence. 


Bare 
Subject. 


Attri- 
butes. 


Verb. 


Objects or 
Complements 


Modifiers. 


Complex - 
Compound. 

Subordinate 

Link-word. 
and 


Whole 
(1) man 

Clause — 
who 

(2) [man] 


Sentence. 

1. a 

2. Subord. 
Clause — 
who . . . 

daughter 


lost 

had 
married 


his wife 

a beautiful 
daughter 


Once upon 
a time 

again 



FOLK-LORE AND FAIRY-TALES. 69 

Exercise i. — (Oral.) Find any complex-compound 
sentences in the fairy story above and analyze them. 

Exercise 2. — Analyze these complex-compound sen- 
tences: 1. Where do the birds go, and what do the birds 
say, when it rains? 2. I will sit by the fire and give her 
some food, and Pussy will love me because I am good. 

3. Love your enemies and do good to them that hate you. 

4. Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway, and 
fools who came to scoff remained to pray. 5. The stag at 
eve had drunk his fill, where danced the moon on Monan's 
rill, and deep his midnight lair had made in lone Glen- 
artney's hazel shade. 6. The rose is fairest when 'tis 
budding new, and hope is brightest when it dawns from 
fears. 7. The fisherman went down to the shore, put down 
his basket, cast his net, and waited until it was motionless 
in the water. 8. When he heard these words of the fisher- 
man, the Afrite endeavored to escape from the bottle, but 
could not, because the fisherman had put upon the bottle 
a stopper with the impression of the seal of Solomon. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Make a topical outline 
of the story of Cinderella. Watch the grouping in the 
paragraphs. 

Write, from your plan, the story of Cinderella. 

2. Use for similar exercises: 1. The Story of Blue- 
beard. 2. The White Cat. 3. Beauty and the Beast. 
4. The Hen that Hatched a Duckling. 

3. Try your own powers of invention on themes like 
these: 1. The Glass House on the Top of the Hill. 2. An 
Adventure in Fairy Glen. 3. The Battle of the Fire King 
and the Ice King. 4. The Magic Flute. 5. The En- 
chanted Ring. 6. How the Camel Got His Hump. 



CHAPTER IV.— SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD- 
WORLD LEGENDS. 

LESSON XXII. 
I. Oral Composition.— Study the legend of : 
St. George and the Dragon. 




14 St. George and the Dragon" Painting by Carpaccio. 



Near the town of Silene (si le f ne), in the province of 
Lybia, in Asia Minor, there once lived a terrible dragon. 
He dwelt near a lake by the city, and he was so bold that 



SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD-WORLD LEGENDS. 71 

he came up even to the walls of the city in search of prey. 
His very breath was so fiery and so poisonous that every 
one was terrified at his approach. When the people gave 
him sheep he was satisfied, but soon they had no more 
sheep to give. Then they gave him other animals, but at 
last their goats and cattle were gone. Then they gave him 
their sons and their daughters. 

Day by day a victim was chosen by lot, and one day the 
lot fell on the Princess Sabra. The king, her father, re- 
fused at first to abide by the fatal choice; but the people 
said: "Why do you sacrifice your subjects for your daugh- 
ter? We are all dying from the breath of this monster." 
The brave girl fell at her father's feet and asked for his 
blessing. And he blessed her, weeping, and she was taken 
to the lake. 

But a Roman tribune then happened to be riding past. 
It was he whom we now know as St. George. He saw the 
maiden weeping and asked her why she wept. She an- 
swered, "Good youth, mount your horse and fly, or you 
perish with me!" "I shall not go without knowing the 
cause," he said. Then she told him of the dragon and her 
pitiful fate. "Fear nothing!" he said, "I will assist you." 
"Alas!" said she, "you cannot kill the dragon and you 
will only die with me." 

At that moment the monster rose out of the water and 
came toward them breathing poison and fire. Sabra 
cried, "Fly, fly, Sir Knight!" But St. George galloped 
toward the monster, commending his soul to God. He 
thrust his lance with such force that he transfixed the mon- 
ster and bore him to the ground. He cut the head off, 
and he and the princess returned to the city. The people 



72 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

received the brave youth with great rejoicings. His re- 
nown spread abroad through all lands. He became the 
patron saint of Richard the Lion-heart and subsequently 
of all England. 

1. Where is Asia Minor? What is a dragon? De- 
scribe how Silene suffered from a dragon. Tell about the 
choice of the Princess Sabra. Tell of the fight of St. 
George and the dragon. Tell how the people received 
St. George when he returned to the city. How does 
England honor St. George? What is his day? 

2. Discuss the following words: i. Asia Minor. 2. 
province. 3. dragon. 4. in search of. 5. prey. 6. fiery. 
7. terrify. 8. approach. 9. satisfied. 10. victim, n. 
choose by lot. 12. princess. 13. at first. 14. sacrifice. 
15. monster. 16. happen. 17. toward. 18. transfix. 19. 
rejoicings. 20. renown. 21. patron saint. 

II. Kinds of Words.— The Noun. Notice in the fol- 
lowing sentences what words represent the things (or 
persons) that we speak about: 

Near the town of Silene, in Asia Minor, there lived, once upon 
a time, a dragon. He dwelt near a lake by the city. His 
breath was fiery and poisonous, and people all lived in terror 
of him. 

Tell the kind of thing represented by town, Asia Minor, 
time, dragon, breath, people, terror. 

A word that represents anything we speak about is called 
a noun. The noun is the name-word (French nom, 
Latin nomen, name) for things. What we speak about 
may be something material, like a lake; or a feeling or 



SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD-WORLD LEGENDS. 73 

quality of persons or things, like terror or bravery; or a 
person, like St. George; or a city or country, like Silene, 
or Asia Minor. The name of what we speak about — lake, 
terror, St. George, Asia Minor, etc. — is a noun. 

Exercise i. — Point out the name-words in the legend 
of St. George. Tell the kind of thing each is the name of. 

Exercise 2. — i. Give nouns that are names of things we 
eat. 2. Give nouns that are names of things we use in 
school. 3. Give nouns that represent periods of time. 
4. Give nouns that represent villages, towns, cities, and 
countries. 5. Give nouns that represent qualities of 
people — their virtues, faults, etc. 6. Give nouns that 
represent qualities or relations of material objects — size, 
color, distance, etc. 

III. Written Composition. — i. Make an outline of 
the Legend of St. George like that on p. 41. 

Think of the incidents of the story, see them in your 
mind, and write the story as vividly as you can. 

2. Tell, from this summary, the story of St. Andrew. 

Brother of Saint Peter — a fisherman — a disciple of John 
the Baptist. His call (Matthew iv., 18 ff.). Went as 
missionary to Greece — at Patras he was reviled for 
preaching about one who had been crucified — was ordered 
to sacrifice to idols — he refused — was imprisoned — quieted 
the people, who loved him and wished to rescue him — was 
scourged — crucified on the cross known by his name (X). 
His relics carried off to Scotland by St. Rule, who became 
first Bishop of St. Andrews, and St. Andrew became the 
patron of Scotland. 



74 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



LESSON XXIII. 




"Saint Christopher.' 1 Painting by Titian. In 
the Ducal Palace, Venice. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study the legend of: 

St. Christopher. 

There was once a giant named Off'erus who was so 
strong that he thought only the greatest king worthy of 
his service. But he found that the king he served feared 
the Devil, and so he left him and sought the Devil's service. 



SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD-WORLD LEGENDS. 75 

But one day when he was abroad with his new master he 
was surprised to see that the Devil would not pass a way- 
side cross, saying that the cross stood for One stronger 
than he. 

So Offerus quitted the Devil's service and wandered in 
search of some one who could tell him how he could serve 
the King whose sign was the cross. At last a hermit told 
him that fasting was one form of serving that King. 
"But," said Offerus, "If I fast I shall lose my strength 
and have nothing left with w T hich to serve the King." 
"Then say many prayers," advised the hermit. "But I 
know no prayers," replied Offerus. "Well," said the 
hermit, "this river here is dangerous. When pilgrims 
come here, they are afraid of the swift stream, and indeed 
many trying to cross have been drowned. If you will 
dwell here by the river and help the poor people across, 
maybe the King will count that as service rendered to him." 

So Offerus built a little hut by the river, and day and 
night gave his help to pilgrims and travellers. Once, on 
a stormy night, he heard a voice calling his name, and 
going out found a tiny child waiting to cross. He tossed 
the little fellow to his shoulder, grasped his staff, and waded 
in. Never had the current seemed so swift and strong, 
and at each step the child grew heavier, so that he could 
barely stagger under the weight. But he went on bravely. 
When he reached the farther shore he knew at last that his 
King had accepted his lowly service, for it was the Christ- 
child himself he had carried. The King he sought had 
counted the aid given to each pilgrim as service done to 
him. 

Henceforth the giant was known as Christoph'erus, or 



76 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Christ-bearer. Among pictures and statues of saints there 
are few seen so often as that of the giant wading in mid- 
stream, bearing the child on his shoulders. 

1. Summarize, in a sentence or two, the story of St. 
Christopher. 

2. What idea had Offerus of the right master to serve? 
Who was his first master? Why did he give up his ser- 
vice? His second? Describe the scene at the wayside 
cross. Describe the scene of Offerus and the hermit. 
Describe the home of Offerus by the river. Tell the pur- 
pose Offerus had in living there. Tell of his work. Tell 
the story of his carrying over the Christ-child. Tell how 
he felt when he learnt whom he had carried. Explain his 
new name. 

3. Express in different words: 1. He was abroad one 
day. 2. A wayside cross. 3. He wandered in search of a 
new master. 4. The river is dangerous. 5. Pilgrims have 
been drowned trying to cross. 6. The king counts that as 
service. 7. The giant was known henceforth as Chris- 
topher. 8. The giant waded in mid-stream. 

II. Words.— Forms of Nouns. — Number. Study the 
differences in form and meaning of the following words : 

giant — giants, cross — crosses, man — men. ox — oxen. 

This variation is called number. The form in which 
one thing is spoken of is called the singular number; the 
form by which more than one are signified or implied is 
the plural number. 

Exercise i. — Point out the nouns in "The Legend of 
St. Christopher" and give their singular and plural. 



SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD-WORLD LEGENDS. 77 

Means of Indicating Number in Nouns. — i. The 

general rule is that the plural form is — 5 or — es added 
to the singular. 

giant — giants, cross — crosses, church — churches. 

Note. — If the singular ends in a hissing sound an extra syllable must be 
made to sound the s of the plural; hence church — churches. 

Oral and written drill on many miscellaneous examples should accompany 
the teaching of forms and rules of number. 

(1) If the singular noun ends in — e, add only — s: house 
— houses. 

(2) Nouns ending in — / and — Je change their pronun- 
ciation and spelling in the plural: thief — thieves; leaf — 
leaves; wife — wives. But roof — roofs; dwarf — dwarfs; 
scarf — scarfs, etc. 

(3) Nouns ending in — y after a consonant are written 
— ies in the plural: lady — ladies. But nouns in — y after 
a vowel are regular: boy — boys. 

(4) Nouns ending in — after a consonant add — es: 
hero — heroes (except canto, grotto, halo, piano, solo). 
Nouns in — after a vowel add — s : folio — folios. 

(5) Words used as names of themselves usually take 
— y s in the plural: Dot your Vs and cross your fs. 

III. Written Composition. — i. Tell the story of St. 
Christopher. Use any suggestions that came out of the 
oral study. 

2. Expand this summary into the story of St. Patrick: 

Born in France — carried captive to Ireland by an Irish 
raider of the French coast — kept as a slave to tend sheep — 
escaped — went back to France and studied theology. 
Returned to Ireland as bishop — preached and converted 
the Irish. Was hated by a heathen chief and threatened 



78 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

by him — his charioteer heard the threats and asked St. 
Patrick to let him ride for once while the saint drove — 
near his castle the chief came out — speared the man in the 
chariot, taking him for the apostle. St. Patrick established 
a see at Armagh — bestowed many benefits on Ireland — 
drove all serpents and reptiles out of the island. His day 
— his emblem. 

3. Tell the story of: 1. St. David. 2. St. Nicholas. 
3. St. Agnes. 4. St. Denys. 5. St. Valentine. 6. St. 
Francis of Assisi. 



LESSON XXIV. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study the legend of: 
The Wandering Jew. 

In the winter of the year 1547 a stranger was noticed in 
the church at Hamburg, Germany. He was a tall man 
with his hair hanging on his shoulders. He was standing 
barefoot during the sermon over against the pulpit, listening 
with the deepest attention. His clothes were in rags and 
he appeared to be about fifty years old. 

Everyone wondered at the man, and when the elders 
of the town questioned him he said that his name was 
Ahasuerus {ah haz yew e r rus), that he was born in Jerus- 
alem, and was by trade a shoemaker. They questioned 
him further of himself, and he told them his story. He 
had lived in Jerusalem at the time of the crucifixion of 
Christ, whom he had persecuted. With his little child 
in his arms he had stood at his door, looking at Christ 



SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD-WORLD LEGENDS. 



79 



when he was being taken to Calvary. He saw Christ 
bowed down under the weight of the heavy cross, and 
heard him ask for a moment's rest on his door-step. But 
the shoemaker would not let him stop for a moment, and 
drove him on, with harsh words. Wan and weary, the 
Man of Sorrows took up again the way of the cross, but 
looking back on Ahasuerus, he said, " I shall enter into my 
rest, but you shall wander and find no rest anywhere till 
the Last Day." 

At these words Ahasuerus set down his child, and, 
drawn by a mysterious power, he followed Christ, even to 
the mount called Calvary. 

Then he felt he must go forth into the world as a sorrow- 
ful pilgrim, and he wandered on many, many years. 
When he returned to Jerusalem he found not one stone of 
it left on another, and he turned away to wander on again. 
Over the whole earth and through all the centuries he 
had wandered,, always a stranger and a pilgrim, speaking 
all languages and yet of no nation, expiating his hardness 
of heart, and awaiting the day that should bring him his 
release. Such was the story told by the Wandering Jew. 

1. Tell in the briefest possible way — two or three sen- 
tences — the story of the Wandering Jew. 

2. Describe the stranger noticed in the church. Give 
the exact questions (direct narration) the people asked 
him. Tell the story of Ahasuerus and Christ. Tell the 
story of Ahasuerus's wanderings. Describe the life and 
feelings of a man so fated to live. 

3. Express the thought in a different way: 1. A tall 
man with his hair hanging. 2. Standing barefoot. 3. He 



80 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

stood over against the pulpit. 4. He listened with 
the deepest attention. 5. His clothes were in rags. 6. 
Everybody wondered at the man. 7. He was by trade a 
shoemaker. 8. He stood with his child in his arms. 9. 
He drove him on with harsh words. 10. I shall enter into 
my rest. n. Not one stone was left on another in the city. 
12. He expiates his hardness of heart. 

II. Words. — Forms of Nouns. — Number. (Continued.) 
2. A few old nouns form their plurals by change of vowel. 

foot — feet. man — men. tooth — teeth, 

goose — geese. mouse — mice. woman — women. 

Note. — The spelling changes in mouse — mice, louse — lice. 
Oral and written drill on number forms should accompany the study of 
number. 

3. Several old nouns have a plural form — en. 

ox — oxen. child — children. 

Note. — Child — children has an old plural form — r as well as — en. Brother 
— brethren (members of a society) has a vowel change as well as — en. Cow 
has an old plural form, kine, as well as cows. 

4. A few old nouns have the same form in the singular 
and in the plural. 

fish — fish. deer — deer. sheep — sheep. 

Note. — Fish is usually the collective plural, but fishes is frequently used in 
enumeration: three fishes. Note also ten head of cattle. A troop of horse. 

Exercise i. — Point out the nouns in "The Legend of 
the Wandering Jew" and show their forms for singular 
and plural. 

Exercise 2. — Study to see if any other words in the 
legend vary because of number. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write the story of 



SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD-WORLD LEGENDS. 8l 

the Wandering Jew. Use any suggestions of the oral 
study. 

2. Tell the story of the Ancient Mariner. 

Coleridge's poem may be read to the class in preparation for this theme. A 
topical outline of it should be made before writing. On account of its length, 
it may be told in parts as a "continued" story. 



LESSON XXV. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study the following stories, 
outlined in the following summaries. Expand the out- 
lines and tell them orally. 

I. — The Flying Dutchman. 

A Dutch ship homeward bound — continued head-winds 
off the Cape of Good Hope — the captain swore to double 
the Cape and not put back if he strove till doomsday — ■ 
taken at his word — his fate to beat always about the Cape 
— never doubling it — never rounding it — the Phantom 
Ship seen in stormy weather off the Cape. 

II. — Lohengrin. 
Elsa of Brabant an orphan — Frederick von Telramund 
her guardian — he claimed her in marriage — she refused — 
appealed to the Emperor. The Emperor bade her call a 
champion to protect her in her refusal — the day fixed for 
the combat — Elsa had no champion — her despair — at last 
a boat was seen drawn by a swan — in it a knight asleep on 
his shield. He came to fight for Elsa — he conquered — 
he married her, warning her first never to ask his name 
and race. Happy at first — Elsa became curious — asked 
his name — he told her sadly he was Lohengrin, a guardian 



82 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

of the Holy Grail — the swan-boat came back — Lohen- 
grin stepped into it and was seen no more. 

III. — The Lorelei. 

The Rhine — the evening light — the smooth current — 
a rock in the stream — the maiden sitting on the rock, her 
jewels gleaming, combing her golden hair with a golden 
comb — her song. The sailor in his little boat — the song 
makes him tremble — it means his doom — he looks toward 
the direction of the magic sound — he sees not the fatal 
rock — the boat is swept into the whirling rapid — boat and 
sailor are lost. That is what the Lorelei (lo f re li) has done 
with her song. 

II. Words. — Forms of Nouns. — Number. (Contin- 
ued.) 5. In compounds the noun may be modified by 
words that follow it. The noun takes the plural sign. 

brother-in-law — brothers-in-law. hanger-on — hangers-on. 

But if the first part of the compound is not a noun the 
plural sign is given at the end. 

cut-throat — cut-throats. pop-overs. ne'er-do-wells. 

Note. — Note the plurals: Mister — Messieurs (mess'yerz); the Miss Smiths; 
the Wright brothers; three Doctor Wrights. 

6. A few foreign nouns used in English are still found 
with their foreign plurals. 

Note. — The following forms occur most frequently: 

— um — a: memorandum — memoranda, or — urns: stratum — strata. 

— a — ae: larva — larvae; formula — formulae, or formulas. 

— us — i: fungus — fungi; radius — radii; terminus — termini. 

— us — era: genus — genera. 

— is — es: axis — axes; basis — bases; crisis — crises; oasis — oases. 

— on — a: phenomenon — phenomena, criterion — criteria. 

— eau — eaux: beau — beaux. 

The following are unchanged in singular and plural: series, species. 



SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD-WORLD LEGENDS. 83 

Number in Adjectives. — A few adjectives and the cor- 
responding pronouns show a change for number. 

this book — these books. that book — those books. 
this book and those. that book and these. 

Note. — The forms — This here book, -that there book, and them books are 
errors made only by the illiterate. 

Number in Pronouns. — Certain pronouns indicate 
number. 

I, thou, he, she, it, myself, we, they, ourselves, themselves, 
himself — singular. the ones, the others — plural. 

You is singular or plural. 

Number in Verbs. — The verb changes for number in 
(1) the second person (with thou), and (2) third person 
singular present indicative. 

(1) thou wiitest thou shal/ thou earnest 

(2) he (she, it) writes. 

But: 

I (we, you, they) write. I (we, you, they) wrote. 

Note. — Relicts of a more extensive inflection are found in the verb to be in the 
present indicative: I am, thou art, he is we (you, they) are — and in the past 
indicative: I was, thou wast (wert), he was, we (you, they) were. 

Exercise i. — Give the plurals of nouns in the sum- 
maries above. Note any peculiar plurals. 

Exercise 2. — Tell the number of the nouns in the fol- 
lowing. Point out also any pronouns, adjectives, and 
verbs that show inflection for number: 1. I bring fresh 
showers for the thirsting flowers, from the seas and the 
streams. 2. The memory of these things seems now afar 
off. 3. Such days as these are a tonic. 4. An upright 
judge favors neither party. 5. The jury convicts him and 
the judge sentences him. 6. One of the brethren may 



84 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

redeem him. 7. Ye are the children of your Father who 
is in heaven. 8. He sent him into his fields to feed swine. 
9. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 10. All we 
like sheep have gone astray. 11. Mary, go and call the 
cattle home across the sands o' Dee. 12. Antelope and 
deer can be lured near the concealed hunter by the waving 
of a small flag. 13. Mice that have but one hole are 
quickly taken. 14. No sadder proof can be given by a 
man of his own littleness than disbelief in great men. 
15. It is lawful to pray God that we be not led into tempta- 
tion; but not lawful to skulk from those that come to us. 

16. And 'tis my faith that every flower 
Enjoys the air it breathes. 

17. How restless are the snorting swine; 
The busy flies disturb the kine; 
Low o'er the grass the swallow wings, 
The cricket, too, how sharp he sings; 
Puss on the hearth, with velvet paws, 
Sits wiping o'er her whiskered jaws. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write the legend of 
the Flying Dutchman. 

2. Write the story of Lohengrin. 

3. Write the story of the Lorelei. 

4. Write any legend or story of mystery that you have 
heard told. 

LESSON XXVI. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study the stories suggested in 
the following summaries. Expand them orally into a 
storv. 



SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD-WORLD LEGENDS. 85 

I. — Atalanta's Race. 

Atalanta — a princess in Greece — trained in all the exer- 
cises of the body — fleeter of foot than any youth in Greece 
— so beautiful that she had many lovers — vowed to marry 
no one who could not outstrip her in a race. Many youths 
tried and failed — Hippom'anes, judge in one of the races, 
fell in love with her — challenged her to a race. Knowing 
he could not run as swiftly as Atalanta he tried a trick — 
Venus gave him three golden apples. The race began — 
Atalanta so sure of winning that she let him get ahead at 
the start — she began to catch up — he dropped a golden 
apple — she stooped to pick it up — she ran on swiftly — 
when she was abreast of him he rolled another apple 
toward her — she could not resist it — picked it up — soon 
overtook Hippomanes — as she drew ahead he threw the 
third apple beyond her — the goal in sight — she stopped 
just for an instant — picked it up — in that instant he doubled 
his forces — shot ahead — touched the goal. 

William Morris's " Atalanta's Race " in "The Earthly Paradise" may, with 
advantage, be read to the class. 

II. — The Sirens. 

The voyage of Ulysses (yew liss f ez) along the coast of 
Italy — approaches the coast of the Sirens (si' renz). Their 
enchanting song which impelled men to throw themselves 
into the sea when they heard it. Ulysses warned of the 
danger — had his men lash him to a mast so that he could 
not follow the siren song and bade his comrades put wax 
into their ears. — The song was heard — it was most en- 
chanting. — Ulysses tried to pull himself loose and follow 
it. — His men, who could not hear the song and knew the 



86 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

danger, only bound him faster. — The ship sailed on. — 
The song grew fainter. — The ship's company was saved. 

III. — The Forsaken Merman. 

The merman who married a mortal — their home be- 
neath the sea — their children. — The mother heard the 
church bell ring. — She went up to pray in the little church 
on the shore. — She would not come back. The merman 
comes up to seek her. — The children call her again and 
again. — She will not go back to them — yet she longs for 
her children. The lonely home beneath the water. 

Matthew Arnold's "Forsaken Merman" may be read to the class in prepara- 
tion for the written work. 

II. Words. — Forms of Nouns. — Gender Nouns. Some 
nouns and a few pronouns signify not only the being 
represented, but tell us the sex of the being. 

(i) father — (2) mother. (1) wizard — (2) witch. 

(1) actor — (2) actress. (1) executor — (2) executrix. 

(1) he — (2) she. (1) man-servant — (2) maid- 

servant. 

This distinction in words is called gender. Words that 
signify males (1) are of the masculine gender; words 
that signify females (2) are of the feminine gender; 
words that signify either male or female — child, parent, 
person, relative, I, you, we, etc. — are of common gender. 
Words that signify objects without sex — desk, house, city, 
New York — are of neuter gender (ne-^ r uter=not either). 

Note. — Sometimes the poets and orators personify an object. 
"The sun now rose upon our right, 
Out of the sea came he." 

Exercise i. — Point out the words that distinguish sex 



SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD-WORLD LEGENDS. 87 

in the summaries above. Give the corresponding mascu- 
line or feminine form, if there is one. 

Means of Indicating Gender. — i. By inflection, 
actor— actress. host — hostess. he — she — it. 

2. By different words. 

man — woman. boy — girl. youth — maiden. bull — cow. 

3. By added gender words. 

man-servant — maid-servant. he-goat — she-goat. merman — 
mermaid. 

Exercise 2. — (1) Some pupils suggest the names of 
male animals, others the corresponding feminine words. 

(2) Some pupils suggest nouns with masculine termina- 
tions, others the corresponding feminine ones. 

(3) Some pupils suggest nouns with masculine prefixes, 
others the corresponding feminine. 

Exercise 3. — Point out the nouns that indicate gender 
in the following sentences. Tell how the gender is in- 
dicated. Give the corresponding form, masculine or 
feminine: 1. The boy stood by the master's desk. 2. The 
stag at eve had drunk his fill. 3. Young men and maidens, 
praise the name of the Lord. 4. Now lift the carol, men 
and maids. 5. Father, I have sinned against heaven and 
in thy sight. 6. There was a dead man carried out, the 
only son of his mother, and she was a widow. 7. Diana 
is queen of the night and huntress on earth. 8. Thus 
shall Aaron come into the holy place: with a young bul- 
lock for a sin offering, and a ram for a burnt offering. 9. 
She hath no loyal knight and true, the Lady of Shalott. 
10. The negro bore the marks of his slavery. 11. Mistress 



88 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

of herself though China fall. 12. Beauty is a witch. 13. 
Every farmer knows some hens are better with chickens 
than others — more motherly, more careful. The same is 
true of sows with pigs. Some ewes will not own their 
lambs, and occasionally a cow will riot own her calf. 14. 
Thou shalt not covet thy neighbor's house, thou shalt not 
covet thy neighbor's wife, nor his servant, nor his maid, 
nor his ox, nor his ass, nor anything that is his. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write the story of 
Atalanta's Race. Use any suggestions of the oral study. 

2. Write the story of Ulysses and the Sirens. 

3. Write the story of the Forsaken Merman. 

4. Tell the story of one of the myths of Greece or Rome : 
1. Alcestis. 2. Androm'eda. 3. Antigone. 4. Circe. 
5. Diana. 6. Endym'ion. 7. Hercules. 8. Jason. 9. 
Narcissus. 10. Pando'ra. n. Peg'asus. 12. Tantalus. 
13. Vulcan. 



LESSON XXVII. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study the story of: 
Robin Hood and the Sheriff of Nottingham. 

There was once a bold outlaw named Robin Hood. 
He made his home in the royal forest of Sherwood where 
he killed the King's deer and lived in freedom with the 
outlaws of the greenwood. The King was angry at his 
defiance and told the Sheriff of Nottingham he must arrest 
and punish the bold forester. 

The Sheriff thought of a fine scheme. He proclaimed 



SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD-WORLD LEGENDS. 89 

a great shooting match, open to all men who could draw 
the long bow, and offered an arrow of pure gold as a prize. 
He felt sure that Robin Hood would find it too hard to 
stay away when the gray goose shafts were flying. 

Robin's men scented treachery, but Robin would not 
listen to them. He made his way to Nottingham, where 
a range had been laid out two score paces broad. On 
either side the great folk were seated. At one end the arch- 
ers were gathered, looking well to their bows and strings 
and the feathering of their arrows. The herald proclaimed 
the terms of the match: Each man was first to shoot an 
arrow; then from them all the ten best archers were to be 
chosen to shoot again; from these the three best were 
again to shoot three arrows each, the fairest shot to win 
the prize, 

The Sheriff looked closely at each of the ten best men, 
but could see no sign of the Lincoln green worn by Robin 
and his men: there were six well-known archers, two 
Yorkshiremen, one stray Londoner, and a ragged varlet 
in a scarlet jerkin who wore a patch over one eye. 

And when these ten had shot there were three who ex- 
celled: Gill o' the Red Cap, and Adam o' the Dell of Tarn- 
worth, and the knave in scarlet. The Sheriff was suspic- 
ious of the stranger's skill; but he remembered that Robin 
Hood's beard was as yellow as gold pjid his two eyes of 
the keenest, while this fellow had but one eve and a beard 
of brown. The arrows of the three clustered close about 
the bull's eye, fairly atop of each other until Gilbert's 
string twanged and he sent one almost on the very centre 
point. The cheers of the onlookers were followed by a 
dead silence. The stranger drew his yew bow, and the 



90 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

shaft flew and stripping the feather from Gilbert's arrow 
slipped into the very centre. The good folk crowded 
around the victorious archer. The Sheriff gave him the 
prize, asking him his name and place, and offered to. take 
him into service. But the stranger answered roughly: 
" Sheriff, in all broad England no one shall be my master," 
and hastened away. 

That night in Sherwood Forest there was a right merry 
company, for a sturdy figure was stripping off a scarlet 
jerkin showing the true Lincoln green underneath, and 
laughing as he said that walnut stain would soon wash 
from his beard. In his hand was the broad golden arrow, 
for in truth it was Robin himself who had won the prize 
from the Sheriff's own hands. 

That night the Sheriff sat at meat thinking that the great 
match was over and that he had not so much as tempted 
Robin within his grasp, when a gray goose shaft fell rattling 
among the dishes on the table. On it was tied a scroll 
which read: 

"Now Heaven bless your grace this day, 
Say all in sweet Sherwood, 
For thou didst give the prize away 
To merry Robin Hood!" 

" Whence came this, you rascal?" roared the Sheriff, 
purple with rage. 

" But even now it flew through the window," said the 
man who had picked it up. 

1. Give a summary of the story in one sentence. 

2. Give a summary of the story in six sentences. 

3. Give in other words the sense of the italicized parts 
in the following: 1. Robin Hood made his home in the 



SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD-WORLD LEGENDS. 



91 



forest. 2. The outlaws lived in freedom. 3. The King 
was angry at his defiance. 4. The Sheriff proclaimed a 
shooting match. 5. Robin found it hard to stay away. 
6. The gray goose shafts were flying. 7. Robin made his 
way. 8. The archers looked well to their bows. 9. Three 
archers excelled. 10. His eyes were of the sharpest. 11. 
The shot was followed by a dead silence. 12. The Sheriff 
sat at meat. 

II. Words. — Forms of Nouns. — Case. The noun (or 
pronoun) stands in various relations to other words in the 
sentence. Study the relation of the nouns in the following 
to the other parts of the assertion. 

Robin Hood made his home in Sherwood. 

Robin Hood made his home. His home was in Sherwood Forest. 

The King was angry. Robin killed the King's deer. 

These relations, as subject, or object, or possessor, are 
called case. 

1. Nominative Case. — (1) The noun (or pronoun) may 
be the subject of the verb. 

Robin Hood lived in Sherwood. He killed the King's deer. 

This is a subject nominative case. 

Note. — Sometimes the adverb there indicates that the real subject is to follow 
the verb. There was once a bold outlaw = A bold outlaw once was. 

(2) The noun or pronoun may be asserted of the sub- 
ject (see p. 52). 

The outlaw's name ivas Robin Hood. If you were I. 
George Washington became the first President of the United 
States in 1789. 



92 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

As part of the assertion, it is part of the predicate; it is 
the predicate nominative. 

Note. — Be careful to use the nominative form in the predicate after the 
verbs to be, to seem, to become, etc.: If you were he; it is she and /; it seems she. 

(3) The noun or pronoun may be used as a word of ad- 
dress. 

Everybody cried, " Welcome, Robin." 
Whence came this, you rascal! Be off, sir!" 

This is the nominative of address. 

Note. — The noun or pronoun may be, as it were, the subject of a participle, 
in phrases almost independent in the sentence. 

Robin being disguised, the Sheriff did not recognize him. 

This construction is called an absolute construction and the case is called 
a nominative absolute. 

In analysis, such phrases are usually adverbial modifiers of the predicate. 
This is shown by expanding them — As Robin was disguised, the Sheriff did not 
recognize him. 

2. The Objective Case. — The objective case repre- 
sents a relation in which the noun (or pronoun) is affected 
by a verb or a preposition. It is then said to be gov- 
erned by the verb or the preposition. 

(1) The noun (or pronoun) may be the object of the 
verb. 

Robin Hood killed the deer. The Sheriff did not recognize him. 

The object may be (1) direct or (2) indirect. (See 
p. 48.) 

The Sheriff gave Robin Hood (indirect) the prize (direct). 

(2) The noun (or pronoun) may be the object of a 
preposition. 

Robin Hood lived in the forest near Nottingham. The King was 
angry at him and at the Sheriff. 



SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD-WORLD LEGENDS. 93 

(3) The noun or pronoun in the objective case may be 
the subject of an infinitive. 

The King told the Sheriff to arrest Robin Hood. 
The Sheriff watched the foresters shoot. He watched them 
shoot. 

Note. — The noun or pronoun may complete the assertion of a transitive 
verb of incomplete predication. 

They elected him president. They made him general. 
This is the predicate objective. 

(4) The noun in the objective case may be an adverbial 
modifier of time, distance, etc. 

That night the Sheriff sat at meat. 
The range was two score paces broad. 

3. Possessive Case. — The relation between two nouns 
may be ownership. 

Robin Hood's men. The King's deer. 

The trees of the forest. The Sheriff of Nottingham. 

This is the possessive case. 

Note i. — Discuss how far this possessive case shows an attributive relation. 
Cf. the possessive adjectives — my book, our book. 

Note 2. — Sometimes the noun is used in attributive relation to other words. 
A yew bow. Lincoln green. Sherwood Forest. 

Exercise i . — Study the case relations of the nouns and 
pronouns in " Robin Hood and the Sheriff of Nottingham." 

Exercise 2. — Point out and discuss the case relations 
of the nouns in the following: 1. John struck James. 2. 
James struck John. 3. The lamps shone over fair women 
and brave men. 4. The ship stayed in port a week, then 
sailed for Liverpool. 5. John is stronger than I. 6. You 
like John better than Henry or me. 7. Put not thy trust 
in princes. 8. They call this month January. 9. Com- 



94 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

rades, leave me here a little. 10. Saddle my horse and 
lead him round by the door. n. Boys, let us go skating. 
12. No, sir, the ice is too thin for skating. 13. Home, 
home, sweet, sweet home, there's no place like-home. 14. 
Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write the story of 
Robin Hood and the Sheriff of Nottingham. 

2. Write the story of Rip Van Winkle. 

Washington Irving's "Rip Van Winkle " from The Sketch Book, may, with 
advantage, be read to the class, as the basis of this exercise. On account of its 
length, teachers may prefer to have the composition written in parts as a "con- 
tinued" story. 

3. Tell one of the following English legends: 1. Whit- 
tington. -2. The Heir of Linne. 3. The Squire of Low 
Degree. 4. Robin Hood and Friar Tuck. 5. Chevy 
Chase. 6. The Lord of Burleigh (Tennyson). 



LESSON XXVIII. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study this summary of the 
legend of: 

The Mouse Tower on the Rhine. 

An island in the Rhine, near Bingen — a ruined tower 
on it — the story told of it. A famine in the days of Hatto, 
Archbishop of Mentz — his barns full of corn — the poor 
hungry people crying for food — the bishop afraid of them 
— he promised them food in one of his barns — he shut 
them up in the barn and set fire to it — he jeered at their 
cries, saying "Hark! how the mice squeak." But mice 
did come from the burning barn — they followed the bishop 



SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD-WORLD LEGENDS. 95 

in an army — he rushed into his house — but the mice found 
him — he closed doors and windows — the mice found the 
chinks — they attacked him — the servants could hardly 
beat them off. He betook himself to an island in the 
Rhine — built a tower there — the mice swam over in swarms 
— again they climbed walls and crept through chinks — 
the bishop was in his last retreat — they came on him, rust- 
ling and squeaking — ate him up. 

1 . What is the legend of the Mouse Tower ? State it in 
a few words. How many parts are there in the story as 
outlined in the summary? Tell each part from memory. 
How would you indicate the parts in writing the story ? 

2. Describe the island as if you could see it. Tell how 
a famine would affect the poor in a city. Tell how the 
rich might be secure in times of famine. Tell of Bishop 
Hatto — the kind of man he was. What do you think of 
his treatment of the poor ? What punishment came upon 
him? What do you think of its justice? 

II. Words.— Case-Forms, i. We indicate the case of 
nouns usually by position in the sentence. Note the 
difference in relation of subject and object indicated by 
position : 

Hatto hated the hungry people. 
The hungry people hated Hatto. 

Pronouns have, however, different forms for nominative 
and objective relations. 

I — me. thou — thee, he — him. she — her. we — us. they — 
them, who — whom. 

Oral exercises with blackboard work should accompany the study of case 
and case-forms. 



96 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

2. The possessive relation in nouns may be indicated: 
1. By inflections of the noun. 

Hatto's tower. The bishop's barns. The citizens' cries. 
The mice's vengeance. 

(1) The possessive of singular nouns is — 's. 

Hatto's tower. James's hat. 

Sometimes we find proper nouns ending in — s or — x 

taking only ' as the possessive sign. 

For Jesus' sake. Keats' poems. Hercules' labors. Ajax' 
armor. 

But the general rule of 's can always be followed. 

(2) The possessive of plural nouns is generally — \ 

citizens' cries, ladies' bonnets. The Romans' patriotism. 

(3) But nouns making their plural by vowel change 
take 's. 

the mice's vengeance, children's games. 

The pronouns have adjectival forms that serve for pos- 
sessive relations. 

I — my. thou — thy. he — his. she — her. it — its. we — our. 
you — your, they — their. 

The pronominal possessive forms hers, its, ours, yours, 
theirs, whose, do not take the apostrophe. 

2. The possessive relation of nouns may also be in- 
dicated by a phrasal possessive with of. 

The castle's walls — the walls of the castle. 
Charleston's streets — the streets of Charleston. 

Usually neuter nouns take the possessive with of. 

Note. — Sometimes of indicates only identity ; the second noun is only a 
second explanatory name of the first: The forest of Sherwood = Sherwood 
Forest, the city of New York = New York City. This is really an appositive 
relation. 



SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD-WORLD LEGENDS. 97 

Exercise i . — Use the nouns of the legend of the Mouse 
Tower in various case relations, and note their form. 

Exercise 2. — Show the relation of the nouns and pro- 
nouns in the following and name the cases: 1. A beggar's 
wallet is never full. 2. A man's house is his castle. 3. I 
was alarmed by my friend's story. 4. England, with all 
thy faults, I love thee still. 5. Now, Kitty, make him go. 
6. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 7. He giveth 
his beloved sleep. 8. The sap starts up in the sugar- 
maples the very day the bluebird arrives. 9. Suit the 
action to the word, the word to the action. 10. Here, 
coward, give me the daggers. 11. You and I are not yet 
past our dancing days. 12. Man is a wonderful piece of 
w T ork. 13. They made Victoria Queen of England in 1837. 
14. The waves breaking in the shallows, their boat was 
upset. 15. Give me your bark, O birch-tree. 16. The 
chipmunk, little fellow, has many enemies. 17. These are 
times that try men's souls. 18. Sundown is the children's 
hour. 19. Let's give him what's in our purse. 20. The 
great plague of London was in 1665, the fire of London, 1666. 

Exercise 3. — Many errors in English occur through 
the use of wrong forms of case — nominative case-forms in 
objective relations, and so forth. Point out the case rela- 
tion in each noun and pronoun in the following. Correct 
any errors that occur: 1. Who gave you the book? Who 
did you give it to ? 2. The country knows too well who it 
has to thank for this misfortune. 3. Let they who spoke 
raise their hands. 4. She spoke to a little girl whom she 
could see was in danger. 5. It will be easy for you and I 
to get seats. 6. Let you and I go. 7. Who did it? Me. 
8. Who is this book for? I. 9. I don't know who you 



98 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

told to do it. 10. I don't know whom you said was to do 
it. 11. Between you and I, I shall not let either Harry or 
she go. 12. If you were me, would you go? 13. That is 
the way for you and she to be late. 

The oral and written work offers the best opportunity for training in gram- 
matical correctness. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Tell the legend of the 
Mouse Tower on the Rhine. Use any suggestions of the 
oral composition in expanding the summary. 

2. Develop from this summary the legend of: 

The Stolen Heart. 
A knight brave but cruel — shut prisoners up in the dun- 
geons of his castle — one of them was a witch — she planned 
her revenge. — Led out to work in the garden — saw the 
knight on the grass — slipping up behind him she scattered 
poppy seed on his eyes — he fell into a deep sleep — she 
stabbed his breast with an aspen branch — took out his 
heart — put a hare's heart in its place. When the knight 
awoke he found he was trembling — was afraid his armor 
would crush him — that his hounds would tear him to 
pieces — he could not bear the clashing of weapons — the 
jingling of weapons — the clatter of spurs. His enemies 
came to besiege the castle — he could not lead his men to 
victory — he hid himself in the very dungeons where he 
had kept his prisoners — was found by his enemies and put 
to an inglorious death. 

3. Develop from this summary the legend of: 

The Baker's Daughter. 
A mean, greedy man, a baker, cheated every one who 
would let him — his daughter like him — made money any 



SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD-WORLD LEGENDS. 99 

way she could — the baker away — the girl minded the shop. 
— An old woman came and begged for bread — the girl 
refused — she begged harder — the girl took a bit of dough 
— gave it to the old woman — bade her be off — the old 
woman asked the girl to let her bake it — the girl put it 
into the oven — when she went to take it out it had swelled 
into a big loaf — pretended she could not find the bit of 
dough. The old woman asked for another bit — put it into 
the oven — became a larger loaf than the last — the girl pre- 
tended again she had lost the dough. Again the old woman 
asked for a bit — got a very tiny piece — this made the big- 
gest loaf of all — the old woman claimed it — the girl re- 
fused — said, "How could such a large loaf have grown 
out of such a little piece of dough?'" — "It is mine/' said 
the old woman. "It is not," said the girl. The old 
woman really a witch — angry — turned the girl into an 
owl which flew away and was never seen again. — To this 
day they say the owl was a baker's daughter. 

4. Tell one of the following old-world legends: 1. The 
Seven Sleepers of Ephesus. 2. Frederick Barbarossa's 
Magic Sleep. 3. The Seven Champions of Christendom. 
4. The Man in the Iron Mask. 5. Undine. 6. Sintram. 



CHAPTER V.— NATURE THEMES. 
LESSON XXIX. 
I. Oral Composition.— Study the following dialogue: 




"The Barnyard — A Grey Morning. ^ Painting by C. Morgan Mcllhenney. 

A Barnyard Talk. 

" Cock-a-doodle-doo!" crowed the Cock in the early 
morning. " I am the cleverest person on the farm. Every 
morning I wake the people up so that the men can get to 
work and the children can get to school at the right time. 
That is the reason the children feed me with corn and 
bread every day." 



NATURE THEMES. IOI 

" Cluck, cluck!" said the Hen. "You ought not to be 
so conceited, good sir. You never give the children any- 
thing to eat, but I do. Almost every day I lay an egg, 
and my eggs are made into pancakes for the children. 
Surely I am cleverer than you." 

"Mew, mew, mew," said the Pussy-cat, who had heard 
the talking. "You want to know who is the cleverest," 
said she. "HI tell you. If I did not kill all the rats and 
mice, those wicked things would come and eat up all the 
butter and cheese, and all the bread and cake, and the 
children would have to go to school without any lunch. 
That is why the children and I are such good friends. 
Why, they give me milk to drink, and I sit on their laps." 

"Bow, wow, wow!" said the Dog. He had put his 
head out of the kennel when he heard Pussy boasting. 
"How do you think things would go if I didn't watch over 
the house, night and day? / know who is the most im- 
portant person on the farm." 

Then up came the Farmer, who had overheard every- 
thing. "You are all kind and useful," said he. And he 
scattered corn to the Cock and to the Hen, and gave Puss 
a saucer of milk, and Doggy a bone to gnaw. They were 
all happy and satisfied, and stopped disputing. 

— Abridged from a story from the Norwegian, by Emilie Poulsson, in "In the 
Child's World." By permission of the publishers, Messrs. The Milton Brad- 
ley Co. 

I. What was the Barnyard Talk about? Describe a 
barnyard you have seen. Describe the barnyard of this 
story. Who are the characters of this story? What did 
each claim to be, and why? What was right and what 
was wrong in his claim? How did the farmer settle the 
dispute? Did he settle it justly? 



102 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

2. What is a dialogue? Why is "A Barnyard Talk' 5 
given in the form of a dialogue ? 

3. Use the following words in sentences of your own 
making: 1. at the right time. 2. ought not to be. 3. 
boast. 4. day and night. 5. scatter. 6. gnaw. 7. dis- 
pute. 

4. Tell the story to the class. Let each part be told by 
a different pupil. 

II. Kinds of Words. — The Adjective. We wish at 
times to describe a person or thing — 

The early morning. The cleverest person. Red apples. A 
cold winter. Rough boards. Heavy parcels. 

Compare the colors with which we miajht paint a house to make it — a red 
house, a white house, etc. 

or to tell its number or order — 

An egg. Every morning. All the rats. Six apples. Last 
winter. The first board. 

or to point it out — 

The farm. This farm. These books. Those books. 
or to ask about it — 

Which person? Which book? What man? 

The word that is added to a noun to qualify or limit the 
meaning of the noun is called an adjective. 

Exercise i. — Point out the adjectives in the story of 
"A Barnyard Talk." 

Exercise 2. — Using adjectives, show how you can 
qualify or limit the nouns used in "A Barnyard Talk." 

Exercise 3. — Describe, by adjectives, the things repre- 
sented in the following (e. g., the wintry day, the snowy 



NATURE THEMES. 103 

day, etc.) : 1. The pupils (1) in school hours; (2) at recess; 
(3) going home. 2. The sky (1) in rain; (2) during a heavy 
wind; (3) at sunset. 3. The creek or river (1) in winter; 
(2) in spring; (3) in a dry summer. 4. The street (1) in 
early morning; (2) at noon; (3) at midnight. 5. The 
trees (1) in winter; (2) in spring; (3) in autumn. 

Exercise 4. — Point out the adjectives in the following 
sentences. State to what each refers: 1. All men are 
mortal. 2. A living dog is better than a dead lion. 3. 
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. 4. Good 
manners are made up of petty sacrifices. 5. Coleridge 
was a noticeable man with large gray eyes. 6. Four bulls 
once agreed to live together, and they fed in the same 
pasture. 7. My first thought about the wild flowers was 
to find out their names. 8. Dark behind it rose the forest, 
rose the black and gloomy pine-trees. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write, from memory, 
the story of "A Barnyard Talk." 

Note first the order of the speakers. Expand, if you 
wish, the reasons each has for boasting. Add, if you 
wish r other characters. Imitate the dialogue form. Watch 
your quotation -markso 

2. Change the characters of "A Barnyard Talk" to a 
group of people in a household, and write the story. 

3. Imagine a group of dogs discussing human beings — 
their masters and others; write down their conversation 
in dialogue form. 



104 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



LESSON XXX. 
I. Oral Composition.— Study this description of 




"Swallows on a Telegraph Wire." Painting by 
M. Laux. 

The Swallow. 

It is very easy to know the swallow family. They are 
small birds with long pointed wings, always sailing around 
in the air as if they would never tire. Their beaks are 
short, but very wide at the head. The mouth opens as 
far back as the eyes. They have small weak feet, so that 
when they alight it is usually on a small twig or telegraph 
wire, or on the flat top of a fence or roof. Swallows wear 
no gay colors. Nearly all of them look black and white as 
they sail about in the air. But when you see them closely 



NATURE THEMES. 105 

you see they are glossy dark blue or green, sometimes with 
changeable colors, but dark on the back. 

Barn swallows prefer a barn for a nesting-place. It is 
interesting to see them work on their nest. When they 
have chosen the barn they are to build in, they go to some 
puddle in the road. They stand around it on their tiny, 
feet, holding their wings straight up like a butterfly's. 
Then they take up some of the wet earth in their beaks, 
and work it around till it is made into a little pill. With 
this pill they fly to the place they have selected, and stick 
it on to the beam. Then they go back for more. So 
they go on, till they have built up the w r alls of the nest an 
inch thick and three or four inches high. 

When the sw r allows are flying about low over the grass, 
looking as if they were at play, they are really catching 
tiny insects as they go. And w T hen they have nestlings 
to feed, they collect a mouthful which they make up into 
a sort of little ball. Then they fly to the nest and feed it 
to one of the little ones. Thus they keep the air clear 
and free from insects, and they do not a bit of harm, for 
they never touch our fruit or vegetables. 

As these birds eat only flying insects, they cannot stay 
with us when it is too cool for insects to fly abroad. So 
they leave us very early. Some day we shall go out and 
find them all gone, not a swallow to be seen. They have 
started for their winter home, which is far south, in trop- 
ical countries, where insects never fail; but it is a comfort 
to think that next summer we shall have them back with 
us again. 

— By Olive Thorne Miller. Abridged from "The Second Book of Birds.' 
By permission of the publishers, Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 



106 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

1. Describe the swallow's shape — one sentence. De- 
scribe its color — one sentence. Tell how swallows build 
their nest — one sentence. Tell how the swallow catches 
its prey — one sentence. Tell of the use of the swallow to 
mankind — one sentence. 

2. On what principle are the paragraphs in "The 
Swallow" made? What does each paragraph treat of? 
State very briefly the parts of the theme. What deter- 
mines the order in which the writer brings forward the 
parts? Could the last paragraph, for instance, be given 
first? Is the proper amount of space given to each part 
of the theme ? 

3. Tell about the bank-swallow, or sand-martin. 

4. What birds did you see on the way to school? How 
did you recognize them ? What do they feed on ? What 
are their nests like ? Can you tell different kinds of birds' 
eggs? What common birds are helpful and what are 
harmful to man? 

5. Bring and read to the class a poem about birds. 

II. Kinds of Words. — The Pronoun. It would be 
very tiresome to have to say: 

It is easy to know the swallow family. The swallow family are 
small birds. The beaks of the swallow family are short, etc. 

Study to see what language does to save us from these 
tiresome repetitions. 
We can say: 

It is easy to know the swallow family. They are small birds. 
Their beaks are short, etc. 

It would be tiresome to say — if your name is John 
Smith ; — 

John Smith says what John Smith thinks. 



NATURE THEMES- 107 

You can say, 

I say what / think. 

There is, then, a useful class of words that are general 
substitutes for nouns. They take their meaning from the 
noun for which they stand. They are called pronouns 
(i. e., for -nouns). 

Exercise i . — Practice (oral) building sentences on topics 
in the Lesson, using a noun and its substitute pronoun. 

Exercise 2. — Point out the pronouns in "The Swallow" 
and the nouns for which they stand. 

Exercise 3. — Pick out the pronouns in the following 
sentences. Tell what nouns are represented by them: 

1. There was once a king who ruled over many lands. 

2. Who killed Cock Robin? 3. "I," said the sparrow. 

4. Who will stand at either hand and keep the bridge with 
me? 5. Many are called but few are chosen. 6. I know 
the song the bluebird is singing. 7. That is the way for 
Billy and me. 8. Two heads are better than one. 9. That 
mercy I to others show that mercy show to me. 10. We 
must all toil — or steal. 

Exercise 4. — Substitute pronouns where possible in 
the following sentences: 1. The fox, when the fox could 
not get the grapes, said to the fox, "The grapes are sour." 
2. Every day Peter tended the cows down by the river, 
and every night Peter drove the cows home. 3. Every 
day when the person speaking goes to bed, the person 
speaking sees the stars shine overhead. 4. It is a lady, 
sweet and fair; the lady comes to gather daisies there. 

5. Twinkle, twinkle, little star; how I wonder what the 
little star is! 6. This is a story, a story I like to read. 
7. Here is the man, the man bought the horse. 8. Have 



Io8 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

you any apples ? I have no apples. 9. What pupils wrote 
the best story? Harry and the person speaking wrote 
good stories. 

Exercise 5. — Pick out any pronouns you can find in 
"The Swallow," and state what noun each stands for. 

III. Written Composition.— 1. Write, from memory, 
an account of "The Swallow/' 

Make a plan of what you are going to write. Make a 
drawing to go with your story. Add anything you your- 
self have seen of swallows. 

2. Tell the story of "The Birds of Killing\yorth." 

Longfellow's poem, " The Birds of Killingworth," in " Tales of a Wayside 
Inn," Part I, may, with advantage, be read to the class. 

3. Write a composition similar to "The Swallow" on 
some bird of prey like the hawk; or some song-bird, like 
the canary, or cat-bird, or chickadee; or some useful bird, 
like the hen, or duck. 

4. Describe a visit to a bird-store. 

5. Tell one of the bird legends: 1. The Robin (see J. G. 
Whittier's poem, "The Robin"). 2. The Cross-bill (see 
Longfellow's translation, "The Legend of the Cross-bill"). 
3. The Pigeons of St. Mark's, 



NATURE THEMES. 



109 



LESSON XXXI. 




4 Collie Dogs. K ("The Judgment of Paris.") Painting by Thomas Blinks. Copy 
right, 1897, by Photo graphische Gesellschaft. By permission of the 
Berlin Photographic Co., New York. 

Ic Ora T| Composition. — Study the description of? 
Sirrah, the Shepherd's Dog. 

My dog was always my companion. I conversed with 
him the whole day. I shared every meal with him, and 
my plaid in the time of a shower; the consequence was that 
I generally had the best dogs in all the country. The 
most remarkable one that I ever had was named Sirrah. 

He was, beyond all comparison, the best dog I ever saw. 
He was of a surly, unsocial temper, disdaining all flattery. 
When I first saw him, a drover was leading him by a rope; 
he was both lean and hungry, and far from being a beauti- 
ful cur, for he was all over black, and had a grim face 
striped with dark brown. I thought I discovered a sort 



IIO COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

of sullen intelligence in his countenance, notwithstanding 
his dejected and forlorn situation, so I gave the drover a 
guinea for him, and I am satisfied I never laid out one to 
so good a purpose. 

He was then scarcely a year old, and knew so little of 
herding that he had never turned a sheep in his life; but 
as soon as he -discovered that it was his duty to do so, and 
that it obliged me, I can never forget with what anxiety 
and eagerness he learned, his different evolutions. He 
would try every way deliberately, till he found out what I 
wanted him to do, and when once I made him understand 
a direction he never forgot or mistook it again. 

It happened one year that about seven hundred lambs 
broke loose about midnight and came up the moor upon 
us, making a noise with their running louder than thunder. 
By our exertions we cut them into three divisions. I called 
out, " Sirrah, my man, they're a' away," the word, of all 
others, that set him most upon the alert, but owing to the 
darkness of the night, and the blackness of the moor, I 
never saw him at all. I ran here and there, not knowing 
what to do, but always at intervals gave a loud whistle 
to Sirrah, to let him know that I was depending on him. 
By that whistling the lad who w^as assisting me found me 
out, but he likewise had lost all trace whatsoever of the 
lambs. At dawn we set out on our return. I asked him 
if he had seen Sirrah. He said he had not. My com- 
panion bent his course to the north, and I ran away toward 
the westward for several miles. We met after it was day, 
but neither of us had been able to discover our lambs nor 
any trace of them. 

On our way home, however, we discovered a lot of 



NATURE THEMES. Ill 

lambs at the bottom of a deep ravine, and the indefati- 
gable Sirrah standing in front of them, looking around for 
some relief, but still true to his charge. The sun was 
then up, and, when we first came in view T , we concluded 
that it was one of the divisions which Sirrah had been un- 
able to manage until he came to that commanding situa- 
tion. But what was our astonishment when we discovered 
that not one lamb of the whole flock was wanting! How 
he had got all the divisions collected in the dark is beyond 
my comprehension. The charge was left entirely to him- 
self from midnight until the rising sun; and if all the shep- 
herds in the forest had been there to assist him, they could 
not have effected it with greater propriety. I never felt 
so grateful to any creature under the sun as I did to my 
honest Sirrah that morning. 

— By James Hogg. From "The Shepherd's Dog." Abridged. 

1. What is the relation of the shepherd and his dog — 
companionship ? service ? 

2. Why was the Ettrick shepherd willing to buy Sirrah? 
Describe Sirrah. Tell how he learned his work. Tell of 
his great feat in saving the lambs. 

3. Use in sentences of your own the following words: 
1. converse. 2. plaid (pr. plad). 3. drover. 4. surly. 
5. grim. 6. sullen. 7. dejected. 8. guinea. 9. evolu- 
tions. 10. deliberately, n. alert. 12. ravine. 13. in- 
defatigable. 14. to effect. 15. to affect. 

4. Give in different words the force of : 1. Sirrah was all 
over black. 2. I never laid out money to so good a purpose. 
3. Sirrah had never learned to turn a sheep. 4. He reached 
a commanding situation. 5. He effected the task with 
great propriety. 



112 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

5. Discuss the paragraph division and the order of the 
parts of the subject. 

6. Draw up a topical outline of " Sirrah." 

II. Kinds of Words. — The Verb. Study the way you 
can say something about — 

Dog and companion. Dog and meal. John and skating. 
Girls and reading. Fire and house. John and running a 
race. Sarah and tall. 

to make such statements as — 

My dog was my companion. My dog shared my meal. John 
skates; or John is skating; or, John likes skating, etc. 

In each sentence we use words that assert something of 
the subject. The word that asserts is a verb. 

Note. — The verb may be (1) a single word or (2) a group 0} words. 

(1) My dog was my companion. He shared my food. 

(2) The dog is (was) running. John has run. John will run. John 

would have run. If John should run. 
But be careful to distinguish from the verb phrase its object or modifiers. 
John will have run (verb phrase) a race to-day. John is studying 
(verb phrase) his reading lesson now. 

Exercise i. — Tell what assertions are made in the first 
two paragraphs of " Sirrah," and point out the assertive 
words. 

Exercise 2. — Can you tell the difference in meaning 
between: 1. The cat scratches. The cat's scratches. 2. 
The white cat. The cat is white. 3. John's skates. John 
skates. 4. Some tall girls. Some girls are tall. 5. Run- 
ning down the hill, John slipped. John was running 
down the hill, and he slipped. 6. John is reading. John 
likes reading. 7. The girls have learnt to skate. The 
girls skate every day. 

Exercise 3. — Pick out the assertive word, or verb, 



NATURE THEMES. 



JI 3 



where there is one, in each of the following: i. Ring out, 
wild bells, to the wild sky! 2. Oh, the ring of the piper's 
tune ! 3. John runs well. 40 In the first innings our school 
scored three runs. 5. He has pleasing manners. 6. His 
manners were pleasing everybody. 7. They learn music 
easily because they like learning. 8. They were learning 
music, and liked learning it. 

Oral exercises in the analysis of sentences should be used from time to time. 
By keeping the thought of the passage uppermost, the teacher may make exer- 
cises in analysis a sure test of the pupil's understanding of the passage. 

III. Written Composition.— 1. Tell the story of Sir- 
rah. 

2. Follow the plan and write a similar description of any 
interesting cat or dog that you know of. 

3. Tell about your 
favorite cat, or dog, 
or pony. 

4. Tell about 
Eskimo dogs 

5. 1. My Dog. 
2. My Pets. 3. The 
Beaver's Home. 

4. The Weasel. 

5. The Circus. 

6. The Zoo. 

6. Lost Dogs. 
Tell about these 
dog s — w ho they 
were, and how they lost themselves, what they thought 
and said to each other, and how they got home. 




"Lost Dogs." Painting by Otto Van Thoren. 



114 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

LESSON XXXII. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study this description of: 
The Dragon-Fly, or Darning-Needle. 

The alders, willow trees, and poplars separate us from 
a little road which leads to a pool, surrounded by reeds and 
rushes. There, through the cool, limpid water, we can 
plainly discern the shining pebbles, the sand, and the fish. 

A sort of grub, of a greenish, gray color, crawls out of 
the mud, leaves the water at the bottom of which it has 
hitherto lived, and fastens itself to a small reed. It sticks 
into the bark of the reed two little, very sharp claws which 
it has on each foot. It is quiet a few moments, and you 
can notice its eyes become brilliant, and its back split and 
open. Then a head appears through the opening; after 
this head come the body and wings of a libell'ula, or 
dragon-fly, which we usually call a darning-needle. The 
wings are folded and shapeless; the body is soft, and all in 
a heap. It waits till the air without and the life within 
put all into proper condition. At the end of half an hour, 
it shakes itself and flies away — light, slender, and richly 
adorned with the colors of the emerald and the turquoise, 
and at least as brilliant as either. It is now a dragon-fly 
of the air. 

I see a crowd of them sporting in the air, or lighting upon 
the reeds; some of them dart away and disappear on the 
wing, but they return a few minutes afterward. They 
live on prey, and devour insects of the air, as when, in their 
first shape, they ate those of the water. 

— Adapted from Alphonse Karr, "A Tour Around My Garden." 



NATURE THEMES. 



"5 



1 . Have you ever seen a dragon-fly ? What does it look 
like — its shape, its colors? Tell where it comes from. 
Describe alders, willows, poplars. Tell how the dragon- 
fly is born. What is the emerald ? — its color ? the turquoise ? 
Tell what the dragon-fly does to live. What do you call 
the dragon-fly? What superstition is told about the 
dragon-fly ? 

2. In how many parts is the story of the Dragon-fly 
told ? What part of the story is given in each paragraph ? 
Why are the paragraphs so arranged? 

3. Use in sentences of your own: 1. surrounded by. 2. 
discern. 3. pebbles. 4. greenish. 5. brilliant. 6. shape- 
less. 7. all in a heap. 8. in proper condition. 9. at the 
end of. 10. emerald, n. on the wing. 

II. Kinds of Words.— The Adverb. We must have 
words to modify statements. It is not enough to say — 
We see the pebbles. The grub crawls. John runs. 

we must be able to say: 

We see the pebbles clearly. The grub crawls out. John runs 
here. John runs well. John runs slowly. John does not 
run. 

So, too, we must have w T ords to modify — that is, add to 
or lessen — the force of attributes or modifiers. It is not 
enough to say — 

We see clearly. Jane is tall. Jane runs fast. 

we must be able to say: 

We see very clearly. Jane is very tall. Jane runs very fast, too 
fast. 

The word that modifies statements, attributes, or modi- 
fiers is an adverb. 



Il6 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Exercise i. — Some pupils make statements (oral) 
about things in the story of the Dragon-fly, others add 
suitable adverbs. 

Exercise 2. — Modify each statement in the following 
sentences by one adverb: 1. Work like a man. 2. That 
man has travelled. 3. The crickets creak. 4. The trees 
rock. 5. The ship sank. 6. Lochinvar entered Netherby 
Hall. 7. To every man upon this earth death cometh. 
8. We gazed on the face of the dead and we thought of 
the morrow. 

Exercise 3. — Modify any adjective or adverb in the 
following sentences by an adverb: 1. Once upon a time 
there was a little man. He was so little that he was called 
Tom Thumb. 2. The ripest fruit falls first. 3. I am glad 
that you are happy. 4. The birds were plentiful and the 
flowers smelled sweet. 5. The soldier was wounded, they 
thought. 6. At the first glance they saw he was the likely 
winner. 7. Fighting bravely, the few survivors made 
their way back. 8. They spent the day pleasantly to- 
gether, for they were good friends. 

Exercise 4. — Point out the adverbs in the description 
of the Dragon-fly. Tell what the purpose of each is. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Make a plan or top- 
ical outline of the description of the Dragon-fly. Then 
write, from memory, an account of it. Make a drawing 
to go with your description. 

2. Following the general plan of the Dragon-fly, write 
an account of any other insect — house-fly, cricket, spider, 
mosquito, butterfly, ant, potato-bug, silk-worm, etc. 



NATURE THEMES. 



II 7 



LESSON XXXIII. 
I. Oral Composition. — Study this picture. 




"Apple-Tree in Bloom." Photograph by E. J. Rowley. 

I. Describe an apple-tree — trunk, leaves (shape, color 
above and beneath). Tell what the blossoms of the apple- 
tree are like — shape, cluster, color, fragrance. Describe 
an apple-tree in blossom, like the one you see in the pict- 
ure — how it is beautiful. Tell how the fruit forms: how 
it ripens. Describe an apple-tree with fruit on it. Tell 
how apples are picked and stored and sold. Give some of 
the different kinds of apples — shape, color, taste; the 
good points and defects of each. Tell about the uses of 
apples — food, cider, vinegar. 



Il8 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

2. Following the discussion of the apple-tree, make, 
from memory, a topical plan of a composition on the 
apple-tree. 

II. Kinds of Words. — The Preposition. We must 
have words to indicate the relationship between things we 
think about, or between actions and things. If we look 
at the blossoms and the tree, or the tree and the orchard, 
we see a relation to each other which we express when we 
say: 

The blossoms are on the tree. The tree is in the orchard. 

If we connect the thought that the apple-tree grows with 
the place where it grows, we say: 

The apple-tree grows in the orchard, by the fence, behind the 
barn, etc. 

The word that expresses the relation between one thing 
and another, or between an action and a thing, is a preposi- 
tion. 

Exercise i. — Express various possible relations be- 
tween: i. The blossoms and the apple-tree. 2. The 
orchard and the house. 3. The fish and the water. 4. 
The man runs and the house. 5. The boys stand and the 
school. 6. The children look and the water. 

Exercise 2. — Point out each preposition in the follow- 
ing. Tell the two things, or the action and the thing, it 
expresses the relation between: 1. The boy fell from the 
apple-tree. 2. The wind has such a rainy sound as it 
moans through the town. 3. The bird flew over to the 
pond to have a drink. 4. Put money in your purse. 5. 
The dog lies in his kennel and puss purrs on the rug. 



NATURE THEMES. 119 

6. Behind the clouds is the sun still shining. 7. They were 
happy at their escape and laughed heartily at their ill luck. 
8. The mountains look on Marathon and Marathon looks 
on the sea. 9. They spoke about the man in the moon. 

Exercise 3. — Point out the prepositions in the de- 
scription of the Dragon-fly. Tell the things or actions 
they express relation between. 

Exercise 4. — Point out any pronouns in the same 
story. For what noun does each stand? 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write of the Apple- 
tree. Tell (1) How the apple-tree differs from other trees 
in appearance. (2) The blossoms of the apple-tree. 
(Make a colored picture, if you like, to go with the de- 
scription.) (3) The chief kinds of apples — their merits 
and defects. (4) The value of the apple to mankind. 
Compare this outline with the topical outline you have 
made. Make the paragraphs correspond to your main 
headings. 

2. Write about an Apple Orchard. 

Plan your composition in three parts: (1) The orchard 
in blossom time. (2) The orchard when the apples are 
ripening. (3) The apple-harvest and its disposal. Make 
the paragraphs correspond. 

3. Write a similar composition on one of the following: 

1. The Quince-tree. 2. The Plum-tree. 3. The Cherry- 
tree. 

4. Write a similar composition on one of the following — 
characteristics, cultivation, uses: 1. The Potato Plant. 

2. The Tomato Plant. 3. The Tea Plant. 4. Sugar- 
cane. 5. The Peanut. 6. The Banana. 



120 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

5. Write a similar composition on one of the following: 
1. The Pine-tree. 2. The Cedar-tree. 3. The Oak- 
tree. 

6. Describe the general appearance of the main Forest 
Trees. 

7. The Forest in Spring-time and the Forest in the Fall 

8. The Maple-tree. 

9. The Evergreen Family in America — White Pine, 
Balsam, Fir, Hemlock, Cedar, Cypress. 

10. The Story of a Magic Apple-tree (for a fairy tale). 



LESSON XXXIV. 




' The Candles." Painting by Madeleine Cartientier. 



NATURE THEMES. 121 

I. Oral Composition. — Study this description of: 
The Dandelion. 

Wherever one goes in North America, in Europe, in 
Central Asia, even toward the Arctic regions there is no 
flower more common than the dandelion. The dandelion 
maintains a bare existence on the poorest soil and expands 
into riotous luxuriance when it gets a chance at better 
things. Its leaves are smooth, of a bright green color 
and tooth-edged, from which fact it has its name, from 
the French dent-de-lion (dahn(g) deh le on(g)'). which 
means " lion's tooth." It has smooth, brittle flower-stalks, 
very numerous, and a bright yellow flower, made up of 
hundreds of tiny strap-shaped flowers. The gold changes 
to gray as the seeds form, and the flower-stalk shows a 
feathery globe of plumed seeds. All parts of the plant 
yield a milky juice which has medicinal properties, and the 
leaves, when they are young and tender, are used for salad. 

Every earnest gardener hates the dandelion, it is so 
common, so hardy, and so persistent, planting itself on 
his cherished turf, and flaunting its tough green and gold 
at the expense of the grass. Especially is he keen against 
the silvery seed globes, for one puff of wind will send the 
seeds to take hold of his turf with their tiny barbed points, 
and in a few days he will have another army of aggressive 
dandelions to fight. 

But children love them. No one forbids them to gather 
in that wayside gold, and when the flowers have turned 
into feathery globes there is more fun to be had with them. 
The stalks make tiny trumpets. And you tell what it is 
o'clock by blowing at the seeds and counting the number 



122 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

of puffs needed to scatter them. It is also said that when 
the seeds fly away of their own accord, without any wind 
to help them, it is a sign of rain. 

i. Draw upon the blackboard a topical outline of this 
description. 

2. Express the theme of the first paragraph in one sen- 
tence, that of the second paragraph in a second, that of the 
third paragraph in a third. 

3. Express in your own words the meaning of: 1. a 
bare existence. 2. riotous luxuriance. 3. plumed seeds. 
4. medicinal properties. 5. an earnest gardener. 6. cher- 
ished turf. 7. at the expense of. 8. aggressive dande- 
lions. 9. wayside gold. 10. of their own accord. 

4. Bring and read to the class any poem on the dande- 
lion you can find. 

II. Kinds of Words.— The Conjunction. There is a 
class of link-words that show the relation of thoughts. 
Thus we can show the relation of thoughts expressed in 
a compound or complex sentence. 

(1) She lived unknown, and (2) few could know 
(3) When Lucy ceased to be. 
(1) The piper piped and (2) the children followed dancing, 
(3) until they came to the river Weser (4) wherein all the 
rats plunged. 

Exercise i. — Point out the link- words in the following: 
1. One finds the dandelion wherever one goes. 2. The 
gold changes to gray as the seeds form. 3. The plant 
yields a milky juice, and the leaves are used for salad. 
4. The gardener hates dandelions, but children love them. 

We can similarly indicate the common relationship in 



NATURE THEMES. 123 

thought of compound subjects or compound predicates, 
or several objects, or attributes, or modifiers. 

Exercise 2. — Point out the link-word in each of the 
following: 1. One finds the dandelion in North America, 
Europe, and even in the Arctic regions. 2. Its leaves are 
smooth and tooth-edged. 3. The dandelion is small but 
hardy and aggressive. 4. The seeds sink into the turf 
and spring up as plants in a few days. 

The link-word that expresses the relation between thoughts, 
or the relation of several nouns, attributes, etc., to a common 
thought, is called a conjunction. 

Some pronouns have the power of linking a clause on to 
the main statement, and are called conjunctive or rela- 
tive pronouns for that reason. 

Exercise 3. — Point out the relative pronouns in the 
following. Show the nouns they stand for and the clauses 
they connect: 1. The dandelion is a flower that grows in 
every country. 2. You can squeeze from it a milky juice 
which has medicinal properties. 3. Its leaves are tooth- 
edged, from which comes its name of dandelion. 4. Gar- 
deners who love a well-kept sward hate the dandelion. 

Exercise 4. — (1) Connect the nouns representing 
things in the picture by appropriate conjunctions. (2) 
Connect any actions suggested by the picture with nouns, 
using appropriate conjunctions. 

III. Written Composition.— i. Suppose that you had 
just come upon some dandelions; describe the scene, then 
tell what will happen to the dandelions later as they live 
their life. Make a drawing to accompany your com- 
position. 



124 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



2. Following the plan of the composition on the Dande- 
lion, write on one of the following: i. The Rose. 2. The 
Lily-of-the-valley. 3. The Virginia Creeper. 4. The 
Tiger-lily. 5. Golden-rod. 



LESSON XXXV. 
I. Oral Composition. — Study this picture. 





"Girl Among Daisies." 
et Cie. 



Painting by Benner. By permission of MM. Braun, Clement, 



I. Tell about the parts of the daisy — its stalk; the num- 
ber of flowers on it; the color and number of its petals; 
the color of its sepals; the odor. Tell of the use of flowers 
to the plant. What is the use of the daisy, if it has any, 



NATURE THEMES. 125 

to mankind? Describe a scene of a field of daisies as in 
the picture, and tell of picking daisies. 

II. Kinds of Words. — The Conjunction. (Con- 
tinued.) The conjunction is the chief means to express the 
coordination or subordination of clauses (see p. 21). 

Exercise i. — Express the thoughts in each of the fol- 
lowing in a compound sentence. Indicate the relation- 
ship by a conjunction: 1. Needles have eyes. Needles 
cannot see. 2. I sit upon this old gray stone. I dream 
my time away. 3. Life is real. Life is earnest. The 
grave is not its goal. 4. Ask. It shall be given unto you. 

5. Go to the ant, thou sluggard. Consider her ways. Be 
wise. 6. Consider the lilies of the field. They toil not. 
They spin not. 7. John was not here. James was not 
here. 

Exercise 2. — Improve the expression of the following 
groups by joining them into a complex sentence by means 
of a conjunction: 1. I crossed the wild. I chanced to see 
the solitary child. 2. I know. He did not come. 3. 
Bring no book. This one day we shall give to idleness. 
4. He came down from the mountain. Great multitudes 
followed him. 5. Sinners entice thee. Consent thou not. 

6. I mounted up the hill. The music was heard no more. 
I bore the music in my heart long after. 

Exercise 3. — Improve the expression of the groups 
here by using appropriate conjunctions. Shorten the sen- 
tences where possible: 1. I know that heaven is up on 
high. I know that on earth are fields of corn. 2. Behold 
her reaping by herself. Behold her singing by herself. 
3. The wind makes so much noise. The hail makes so 



126 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

much noise. The rain makes so much noise. 4. The 
bobolink comes amidst the pomp of the season. The 
bobolink comes amidst the fragrance of the season. 5. 
His life seems all song. His life seems all sunshine. 6. 
With head upraised she stood. With look intent she stood. 
With locks flung back she stood. With lips apart she 
stood. 

Exercise 4. — Point out and distinguish from each 
other the prepositions and conjunctions in the following: 
1. After dinner we went skating. 2. After we had our 
dinner we went skating. 3. John ran behind but I could 
not see him. 4. I saw no one but John. 5. Since you will 
not hurry, I will go on without you. 6. He has been here 
since last month. 7. Before you go, tell me about your 
trip. 8. Before me stood a bear. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. According to the plan 
made, write a composition on the Daisy. 

Quote in it any suitable lines you can find in any poem 
you have read. 

2. Describe the parts and their uses in any common 
flowering plant — Peduncle, Perianth, Calyx, Corolla, 
Sepals, Petals, Stamens, Pistil, Pollen, Seed. 

3. 1. Write a free composition on a Flower Garden in 
the City or a Flower Garden in the Country. 2. Wild 
Flowers I Know. 3. The Flowers of Spring and Autumn. 

4. Write a letter describing a visit to a conservatory 01 
botanical garden. 

5. A Florist's at Easter (or Christmas), 



NATURE THEMES. 127 

LESSON XXXVI. 
I. Oral Composition. — Study this description: 
Climbing a Mountain. 

And there Tom was, out on the great grouse-moors, 
heather and bog and rock, stretching away and up, up 
to the very sky. ... So he went on and on, he hardly 
knew why; but he liked the great, wide, strange place, and 
the cool, fresh, bracing air. But he went more and more 
slowly as he got higher up the hill; for now the ground 
grew very bad indeed. Instead of soft turf and springy 
heather, he met great patches of flat limestone rock, just 
like ill-made pavements, with deep cracks between the 
stones and ledges; so he had to hop from stone to stone, 
and now and then slipped in between and hurt his little 
bare toes, though they were tolerably tough ones, but still 
he went on and up, he could not tell why. . . . 

And in a minute more, when he looked round, he stopped 
again, and said, " Why, what a big place the world is!" 

And so it was; for, from the top of the mountain, he 
could see — what could he not see ? 

Behind him, far below, was Harthover, and the dark 
woods, and the shining salmon river; and on his left, far 
below, was the town, and the smoking chimneys of the 
collieries; and far, far away, the river widened to the shin- 
ing sea; and little white specks, which were ships, lay on 
its bosom. Before him lay, spread out like a map, great 
plains and farms, and villages down amid dark knots of 
trees. They all seemed at his very feet; but he had sense 
to see that they were long miles away. 



128 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

And to his right rose moor after moor, hill after hill, 
till they faded away, blue into blue sky. ... At his very 
feet lay a deep, deep green and rocky valley, very narrow 
and filled with wood; but through the wood, hundreds 
of feet below him, he could see a clear stream glance. 
Oh, if he could but get down to that stream! ... It 
chimed and tinkled far below; and this is part of the song 
it sang: 

Clear and cool, clear and cool, 

By laughing shallow, and dreaming pool; 

Cool and clear, cool and clear, 

By shining shingle, and foaming weir l ; 

Under the crag where the ouzel 2 sings, 

And the ivied wall where the church -bell rings, 

Undefiled for the underlled; 

Play by me, bathe in me, mother and child. 

By Charles Klngsley. From "Water Babies." Abridged. 

1 Dam for raising the level of the water on river or canal. 

2 Thrush. 

1. What kind of landscape is described here? Tell 
about the way up the moor. Tell how Tom went up. 
What did he think when he reached the mountain top? 
What did he see from there? 

2. Work out (on the blackboard) a brief plan of the 
description. Draw a map to show the relation of the 
places. 

3. Use the following words in sentences of your own: 
1. landscape. 2. heather. 3. bracing. 4. turf. 5. lime- 
stone. 6. pavements. 7. ledge. 8. tolerably. 9. moun- 
tain. 10. collieries. 11. steeps. 12. knot. 13. valley. 
14. chime, 15. tinkle. 

II. Kinds of Words. — The Interjection. Sometimes 



NATURE THEMES. 



129 



we express feeling by exclamation. Notice that such ex- 
clamations do not express a judgment; they do not enter 
into the structure of the sentence; they express a feeling, 
not a thought. 

Why, what a big place! Oh, if I could get there! Hurrah! 
here's the boat. Hallo! Is that you, Charlie? Whew! 
wasn't he lucky! What ho! the Captain of our Guard! 
Goodness me ! what a surprise ! 

The word that expresses sudden feeling, but is not part 
0} the structure of the sentence, is an interjection. 
Note the usual punctuation of the interjection ( ! ) 
Distinguish from the interjection the adverb or the verb 
or other word, used with exclamatory force. 

On, Stanley, on! (The verb is understood.) 

Back! back! on your lives! (The verb is understood.) 

Distinguish from the interjection the noun used as a 
word of address, though, like the interjection, the noun 
of address stands apart from the construction of the sen- 
tence. 

Boys, boys, do hurry up. 

Harp of the North, farewell. 

Exercise i. — Suggest scenes or accidents that would 
call forth interjections. Give the appropriate interjec- 
tions. 

Summary. — Kinds of Words. There are, then, seven 
classes of words that enter into the structure of the sen- 
tence : 

I. Words to represent things we think about — called 
nouns. 



130 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

II. Words added to, or asserted of, nouns to express 
attributes, etc. — called adjectives. 

III. General words to stand for nouns — called pro- 
nouns. 

IV. Words to make statements — called verbs. 

V. Words to modify statements made, or attributes, 
etc. — called adverbs. 

VI. Words to show relation between things, or actions 
and things — called prepositions. 

VII. Words to show the connection between thoughts, 
etc. — called conjunctions. 

There are also — 

VIII. Exclamations of feeling — called interjections. 
Into these classes of words fall all words we use to say 

whatever we wish to say. They are therefore called the 
parts of speech. 

Exercise 2. — If you had to name the parts of speech 
according to the chief function of each, what name would 
you suggest for each part ? 

Exercise 3. — Try the words of the first paragraph of 
" Climbing a Mountain" and see if there is any word there 
that cannot be classed as one of the eight parts of speech. 

Exercise 4. — Make several sentences, each of which 
contains all the parts of speech. 

Exercise 5. — (1) Analyze the following sentences. (2) 
Tell the part of speech each word in each sentence is: 
1. Boats sail on the river. 2. Wolves, reared with dogs, 
soon learn to bark. 3. O ! while you live, tell truth. 4. 
The low, distant, thrilling roar of the Pacific hangs over 
the coast like smoke above a battle. 5. Laws grind the 
poor and rich men rule the laws. 6. If you would have a 



NATURE THEMES. 13 1 

faithful servant, serve yourself. 7. Truth, from his lips, 
prevailed with double sway, and fools, who came to scoff, 
remained to pray. 

III. Written Composition. — i. Following your plan, 
tell from memory, as fully as you can, how Tom climbed 
the moor, what he saw on the way, and what he saw from 
the mountain top. 

2. Walk to some neighboring hill or height. Observe 
what you see on the way, and what you think of what you 
see. Notice everything you can see from the hill-top — 
place, size, color, etc., of each object. Write, then, from 
memory, an account of your walk. 

3. 1. What I saw as I floated down a River. 2. What 

I saw as I drove to . 3. Tell about the journey of a 

Kite. 4. The Observations of a Cloud. 5. A View 
from . 

LESSON XXXVII. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study this description of: 

A Winter Landscape. 

So long as men had slender means, whether of keeping 
out cold or checkmating it with artificial heat, Winter was 
an unwelcome guest, especially in the country. The poet 
of Winter himself x is said to have written in bed, with his 
hand through a hole in the blanket. Even in our own 
climate, where the sun shows his winter face as long and 
as brightly as in central Italy, the seduction of the chim- 
ney-corner is apt to predominate in the mind over the 

1 Thomson, author of "The Seasons." 



132 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

severer satisfactions of muffled fields and penitential woods. 
But I would exchange this, and give something to boot, 
for the privilege of walking out into the vast blur of a 
north-northeast snow-storm and drawing the first furrows 
through its sandy drifts. If the wind veer too much 
toward the east, you get the heavy snow that gives a true 
Alpine slope to the boughs of your evergreens, and traces 
a skeleton of your elms in white; but you must have plenty 
of north in your gale if you want those driving nettles of 
frost that sting the cheeks to a crimson manlier than that 
of fire. Or take a winter walk in the nightfall and note 
the intense silence. How yellow are the evening lamps 
by contrast wth the snow! The stars seem 

"To hang, like twinkling winter lamps, 
Among the branches of the leafless trees." 

And who ever saw anything to match the gleam of the 
moon, which runs before her over the snow, as she rises, 
cold and clear, on the infinite silence of winter night ? 

— By James Russell Lowell. From "A Good Word for Winter." Abridged. 
By permission of the publishers, Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 

1. In what way do some people take winter? What is 
a manlier way? What is enjoyable in a snow-storm? — 
in what you do? — in the appearance of the landscape by 
day ? — by night ? 

2. Draw up, on the blackboard, a topical outline of 
Lowell's description of a winter landscape. 

3. How does the snow make the fields into "muffled 
fields"? the trees into " penitential woods"? the land- 
scape into "the vast blur"? make the elm-tree "trace a 
skeleton" of itself? Explain "nettles of frost," "manlier 



NATURE THEMES. 133 

4. Use, in sentences of your own, the following words: 

1. whether or. 2. checkmate. 3. artificial. 4. 

unwelcome. 5. chimney-corner. 6. predominate. 7. sat- 
isfaction. 8. muffled. 9. penitential. 10. to boot. 11. 
furrows. 12. skeleton. 13. nettles. 14. intense. 15. 
contrast. 16. twinkling. 17. gleam. 18. infinite. 

II. Functional Value of Word-Groups. — i. Compare 
as to their relation to the noun: 

A (a) cold day. A day (b) of cold. 

A day (c) thai is cold. 

The phrase (b) and the clause (c) both describe the day, 
and are therefore attributes of it, just as is the adjective 
(a). Each has the functional value or relation 0} an 
adjective. The phrase in attributive relation is, therefore, 
an adjective phrase, and the clause in attributive relation 
is an adjective clause. 

2. So, too, compare, as to their relation to the verb: 

The snow falls (a) silently. 

The snow falls (b) in silence. 

The snow falls (c) so that it does not break the silence. 

The phrase (b) and the clause (c) both modify the verb 
just as the adverb (a) does. Each has the functional 
value or relation of an adverb. The modifying phrase is 
called, therefore, an adverb phrase, and the modifying 
clause an adverb clause. 

3. So, too, compare, as to their relation to the thing we 
think about: 

We saw (a) the snow-fall. 

John saw (b) that the snow was falling. 



134 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 

The clause (b) has the same functional value or relation 
as the noun (a). It is a noun clause. 

4. So, too, compare: 

We reached home (a) through Montreal. We reached home 

(b) by way oj Montreal. 
They stood still (a) to hear better; (b) in order to hear better 

The phrase (6) has clearly the functional value of a 
preposition. It is a preposition phrase or phrasal 
preposition. 

5. So, too, compare: 

(a) while men were poor. 



Winter was not welcome ■> 

{0) so long as men were poor. 

The phrase (b) is a conjunction phrase or phrasal 
conjunction. 

6. So, too, compare: 

The poet (a) writes. The poet (b) is writing (will write, has 
written, would have written, etc.). 

The phrase in (b) has the same assertive value as the 
simple verb in (a). It is a verb phrase or phrasal 
verb. 

Groups of words — phrases or clauses — may, therefore, 
enter into the structure of the sentence and have the func- 
tional value of a part of speech. Such a phrase or clause 
takes its name from its functional value in the sentence. 

Exercise i. — (1) Describe the functional value of the 
following phrases in "A Winter Landscape": 1. in the 
country. 2. in bed. 3. in our own climate. 4. would 
exchange. 5. toward the east. 6. in white. 7. in the 
nightfall. 

(2) Tell the functional value or relation of the following 



NATURE THEMES. 



135 



clauses in "A Winter Landscape." Show what each does 

to have that value: 1. Where Italy. 2. If the wind 

east. 3. That gives evergreens. 4. Which 

runs snow. 5. As she rises. 

Exercise 2. — Point out, and tell the functional value 
and relation of each group of words (phrase or clause): 
1. Do the duty that lies nearest. 2. Ingratitude, more 
strong than traitors' arms, quite vanquished him. 3. The 
child cried as if his heart would break. 4. I am a man 
more sinned against than sinning. 5. The line of Norman 
kings began with William the Conqueror. 6. They stood 
where you are standing. 7. They fired the shot heard 
round the world. 8. Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, on- 
ward through life he goes. 

Exercise 3. — Point out, and tell the functional value 
and relation of each group of words in the following: 1. 
The man in the moon looked down with a broad smile 
from amidst the clouds. 2. Who drives fat oxen should 
himself be fat. 3. W 7 e do not know what he said. 4. In 
the end Perseus arrived at the island of the Gorgons. 5. 
Fairies dress exactly like flowers, and change with the 
changing seasons. 6. Like the bubble on the fountain, 
thou art gone and forever. 7. Better a donkey that carries 
me than a horse that throws me. 8. "Be off with you," 
cried the Major. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. From your outline, re- 
produce, in your own way, the thoughts expressed by 
Lowell in "A Winter Landscape." 

2. Following the plan of the preceding, write a similar 
composition on any other season. 



136 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

3. Take any day when you said "This is winter!" (or 
spring, or summer, etc.) and tell of the things that led up 
to your statement. 



LESSON XXXVIII. 

I. Oral Composition. — Exercises in developing a 
theme. 





"After the Storm''' Photograph. 



II. Method of Composition.— Developing a Theme. 

Composition is the effective expression of our thoughts on 
some topic of interest. To compose we must have thoughts. 
If the thoughts are given us by others, the work of com- 



NATURE THEMES. 137 

position is not so difficult, but what we have done is less 
valuable than if we had ourselves got the thoughts and 
expressed them well. 

Composition is, first, a process of thinking thoughts that 
belong to and constitute a larger conception. These 
thoughts come to us from our own observation of the thing 
thought about; from the words of others; from our own 
intuitions of the values and relations of the things observed. 
To write well, we must learn to think well — to train our 
mind to see the whole subject in large outline, and to 
see also the detailed thoughts out of which the whole 
subject is made, and which, well expressed, constitute the 
body of the composition. 

For example: Let our theme — our whole subject — be: 

The Snow Falls and Covers All Things. 

This general conception gives us, first, a general 
picture of some particular scene — perhaps the snow-storm 
falling upon a house with its yard, shrubs, trees, fences, 
neighboring houses, a church with a spire, and distant 
fields. 

As we think further, the general picture yields the de- 
tails of the scene. First, some general change in the 
atmosphere that heralds a storm. So the thoughts of our 
theme have (1) a beginning. 

(2) Then we see the snow change the appearance of the 
air; the garden ground; the shrubs; the trees and their 
branches; the fences; the pump; the houses; the church 
and steeple; the distant fields. Each thing we notice as- 
sumes a new appearance and is covered by the snow in a 
peculiar way. We have a thought for each of these 



138 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

changes. These thoughts constitute the details of the 
subject. In thinking of the details, we must be on the 
alert for the thoughts that the details suggest — what the 
snow on the branches is like, — on the fences, on the pump, 
on the steeple. 

(3) We see, then, the whole landscape transformed — its 
general aspect very different in many ways from the aspect 
before the storm. This general appearance expressed sums 
up the whole impression. 

Each composition thus worked out reflects the natural 
progress of our thought. We may now draw up the fol- 
lowing topical outline of our subject : 

Plan of Topical Outline. 
The Introduction: The beginning of the snow-storm. 

The Body of the Composition: The details of the 

snowfall, as regards air, ground, shrubs, trees, 
fences, pump, houses, fields — with the thoughts 
that spring out of the details. 

The Conclusion: The whole impression of the land- 
scape after the snow-storm. 

Exercise i. — Develop orally the following themes: 
1. The rain fell heavily, drenching everything. . 2. The 
fog descended. 3. The cold was intense, freezing every- 
thing. 4. It is spring (or summer, or autumn, etc.) every- 
where. 5. Everybody ran to see the fire. 6. The city 
wakes up and goes to work. 7. The day dawned. 8. The 
clouds are of all kinds. 9. The spring wild flowers are 
blooming. 10. The frost was at work last night. 



NATURE THEMES. 



139 



III. Written Composition.— 1. Draw up a topical out- 
line and then write a composition on one of the subjects 
developed in the Lesson. 

Take themes in keeping with the season or place in which this Lesson is used. 

2. Describe the scene and the storm that made the 
picture at the head of the Lesson. 

Similar exercises in development can be used on topics of which the pupils 
have a general knowledge. Such information, obtained by questioning the 
class, can be noted on the blackboard, and from it the topical outline can be 
made. Subjects that permit such development are: 1. Some natural feature 
of the earth, like the Prairie, the Desert, a Glacier ; 2. Some natural phenomenon, 
like the Clouds, the Rainbow, a Spring of Water; 3. Some natural object, like 
Coal, Petroleum, Gold, Graphite, the Diamond. 

Special exercises for the training of the powers of observation can be based 
on the colors in a landscape, movements in the street or factory, sounds in 
the school, or street-car, scents on a spring day, etc. 



LESSON XXXIX. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study this description of a 
river. 

The Exploration of the Columbia River. 

The Louisiana Purchase was concluded between the United States and 
France in 1803. By it the northern boundary of the province of Louisiana 
was declared to be the forty-ninth parallel, running westwardly along that line 
indefinitely. Immediately, and with the intention of examining this piece of 
newly purchased property, the United States sent an expedition under Captains 
Lewis and Clark to explore this grand addition to the Union. They started 
from the mouth of the Missouri, in May, 1804, and made the round trip to the 
Pacific and back in two years, four months, and nine days. 

On leaving our camp near the lower fall we found the 
river about four hundred yards wide, with a current more 
rapid than usual, though with no perceptible descent. At 
the distance of two and a half miles, the river widened into 
a large bend or basin on the right, at the beginning of which 
are three huts of Indians. At the extremity of the basin 



140 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

stands a high black rock, which, rising perpendicularly 
from the right shore, seems to run wholly across the river; 
so totally indeed does it appear to stop the passage, that 
we could not see where the water escaped, except that the 
current appeared to be drawn with more than usual ve- 
locity to the left of the rock, where was a great roaring. 
We landed at the huts of the Indians, who went with us 
to the top of the rock, from which we saw all the difficulties 
of the channel. We were no longer at a loss to account 
for the rising of the river at the falls, for this tremendous 
rock stretches across the river to meet the high hills of the 
left shore, leaving a channel of only forty-five yards wide, 
through which the whole body of the Columbia must press 
its way. The water thus forced into so narrow a channel, 
is thrown into whirls, and swells and boils in every part 
with the wildest agitation. But the alternative of carry- 
ing the boats over this high rock was almost impossible 
in our present situation, and as the chief danger seemed 
to be not from any rocks in the channel, but from the great 
waves and whirlpools, we resolved to try the passage in 
our boats, in hopes of being able, by dexterous steering, 
to escape. This we attempted, and with great care were 
able to get through, to the astonishment of all the Indians 
of the huts we had just passed, who now collected to see 
us from the top of the rock. The channel continues thus 
confined within a space of about half a mile, when the 
rock ceased. We passed a single Indian hut at the foot of 
it, where the river again enlarges itself to the width of 
two hundred yards, and at the distance of a mile and a 
half stopped to view a very bad rapid; this is formed by 
two rocky islands which divide the channel, the lower and 



NATURE THEMES. 141 

larger of which is in the middle of the river. The appear- 
ance of this place was so unpromising, that we unloaded 
all the most valuable articles, such as guns, ammunition, 
our papers, etc., and sent them by land, with all the men 
that could not swim, to the extremity of the rapids. We 
then descended with the canoes two at a time, and though 
the canoes took in some water, we all went through safely; 
after which we made two miles, and stopped in a deep 
bend of the river toward the right, and encamped a little 
above a large village of twenty-one houses. Here we 
landed, and as it was late before all the canoes joined us, 
we were obliged to remain here this evening, the difficulties 
of the navigation having permitted us to make only six 
miles. 

— From "'The History of the Expedition under the Command of Captains Lewis 
and Clark, 1814." 

1. Draw a map of the scene and mark the places and 
objects mentioned. 

2. The description of a rapid river involves details of 

(1) speed, (2) mass, (3) noise. Point out, in these classes, 
the expressions that convey these features of the scene. 

3. (1) Show how the description of nature gains in 
interest when it involves human life or personal experience. 

(2) Point out the elements in the description that suggest 
danger to those involved. 

4. Show how the description of nature and the narrative 
of incident are combined in the passage quoted. 

5. Point out any words in the description above that 
are new to you and tell what you can about their meaning. 

6. If you divided this description into paragraphs, where 
would you make the divisions ? 



142 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

7. Draw up a topical outline of the story. 

II. Elements of Form.— Capital Letters. The cap- 
ital letter is a mark of distinction in writing and printing. 

1. It is used to mark the opening of a sentence. 

On leaving our camp. ... At the distance of. 
All true work is sacred. In all true work, even but true hand 
labor, there is something of divineness. 

2. It is used to mark the beginning of each line of poetry. 

My good blade carves the casques of men, 

My tough lance thrusteth sure: 
My strength is as the strength of ten, 

Because my heart is pure. 

3. The sentence quoted in another sentence also begins 
with a capital. 

She had just begun to say, "The curfew tolls the knell of part- 
ing day," when the bell rang. 
I heard you say, " We must be good to be happy." 

Note that we quote here the exact words of the speaker. 
This is direct quotation, or narration. If we incorpor- 
ate the quotation as a subordinate clause, it is indirect 
quotation, or indirect narration, and does not require a 
capital letter. 

I heard you say that we must be good to be happy. 

It is suggested that for these and other rules for capitals and punctuation 
marks, there should be constant oral practice with blackboard work. The 
written exercises may be corrected by the pupils themselves, after changing 
books, as one or more write on the blackboard. 

4. The capital letter is also used in a sentence to give 
emphasis and distinction to words. It is, therefore, used in 
titles. 



NATURE THEMES. 143 

i. The title may be a proper name. Study the capital 
letters used in the following: 

(1) Jehovah. God. Apollo. Diana. 

(2) Joseph. Louise. Estella. Burns. My dog Rover. 

(3) The Columbia River. San Francisco. New Brunswick. 
The United States of America and the Dominion of Canada. 

Note. — By proper name or proper noun is meant the especial name of an 
especial object. All men are men, but their proper names are John Smith, 
the Duke of Wellington, etc. 

The adjectives corresponding to proper names are called proper adjectives, 
and are also marked by capitals: The American nation, Canadians and 
Americans. 

2. The title may be an ordinary word — noun or ad- 
jective, etc. — used: 

(1) With a proper name as a title, or (2) alone. Study 
the following. Note that the capital letter is needed for 
all important words of the titles. 

(1) Mr. and Mrs. Joseph Jolly. Colonel Carter and Lieuten- 

ant Uhler. Dr. Johns and Professor Mitchell. Earl 
Godwin. President Roosevelt and Kaiser Wilhelm. 

(2) The Almighty. The Virgin. The Mother of Christ. The 

President of the United States. His Britannic Majesty. 
Father Time. The Forest City. The Maritime Prov- 
inces. The Black Sea. The Red River. " Little 
Grange," 22 Elm St. West, St. Louis. 175 South Broad 
Street. 

3. The title may be (1) a work of literature; or (2) an 
historical event or document; or (3) religious or political 
parties. Study the following. Note that the main words 
need capitals. 

(1) "The Seasons." "A Tale of Two Cities." "As You 
Like It." "Beauty and the Beast." 



144 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

(2) The French Revolution. The Declaration of Inde- 

pendence. The Bill of Rights. 

(3) Catholics. Protestants. Calvinists. Baptists. Republicans 

and Democrats. 

Note. — With works of literature the first word usually takes a capital : Dickens 
wrote "A Tale of Two Cities." Lowell's essay is called "A Good Word for 
Winter." 

4. The title may be the name of (1) days of the week or 
the month; or (2) special days, festivals, etc. Study the 
following : 

(1) Monday. Tuesday. January. February. 

(2) New Year's Day. Ash Wednesday. 'The Fourth of 

July. 

5. The pronoun / and the interjection O (not oh) are 
also distinguished by capital letters. 

Exercise i. — Write out the full names and addresses of 
ten people you know. 

Exercise 2. — Write out the names and birthdays of 
five pupils. 

Exercise 3. — Write out the names of (1) ten cities, and 
(2) ten lakes, and (3) ten rivers, and (4) ten countries on 
the continent of America. 

Exercise 4. — Write the full titles of ten famous char- 
acters in history. 

Exercise 5. — Write out the names of ten stories or books 
that you have read. 

Exercise 6. — Write down the name of your favorite 
day of the week, your favorite festival, your favorite month, 
your favorite hero and heroine. 

Exercise 7. — Point out and account for the capital 
letters used in the story at the head of the Lesson. 

Exercise 8. — (1) Turn the quotations in the following 



NATURE THEMES. 



J 45 



from direct narration into indirect. Watch for the change 
of capitals: i. They said to me, "Be diligent." 2. "It is 
so delicious to swim!" said the Duckling. 3. The Piper's 
face fell, and he cried, "No trifling! I can't wait." 4. 
"My name is Norval: on the Grampian hills my father 
feeds his flocks." 5. "I," said the Sparrow. "With my 
bow and arrow I killed Cock Robin." 6. King Richard 
cried in defeat, "A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a 
horse!" 7. "I thank God I have done my duty," were 
the last words of Nelson. 8. "Whom the gods love die 
young," was said of yore. 

9. "Stop, stop, John Gilpin! — Here's the house!" 
They all at once did cry; 
"The dinner waits, and we are tired." 
Said Gilpin— "So am I!" 

(2) Turn the quotations of the following from indirect 
to direct narration. Note the change in capitals and 
punctuation required: 1. Margery thought she would like 
to sit down on the bank. 2. The ship was sinking and the 
captain ordered the crew to take to the boats. 3. I said 
to myself that there was here a chance for me. 4. She 
said she lamented sincerely to tell that her dearest mamma 
had been very unwell. 5. Caesar wrote to a Roman 
friend that he had come, had seen, and had conquered. 
6. The village all declared how much he knew. It was 
certain he could write and cipher too. 7. King James 
used to call for his old shoes; they were easiest to his feet. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write, from memory, 
an account of Running a Rapid. 

Imagine that you yourself have had the experience. 



ia6 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



2. Following the plan of the Lesson, tell of any similar 
experience you have had: i. Running the St. Lawrence 
Rapids. 2. An Experience in Coasting. 3. A Runaway 
4. A Toboggan Story. 5. A Mountain Experience. 6. A 
Bush Fire or A Prairie Fire. 



LESSON XL. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study this picture of a Water- 
fall. 




"A Waterfall" (Montmorency). Photograph by E. J. Rowley 



1. Tell how you would reach the scent of this picture. 
Tell the different points from which you would watch the 
scene. Describe the cliffs, river, fall, noise of the roaring 
water seen from above, the water seen from beneath. Tell 
of some accident that might happen at such a place. 

2. Name all the words you can that describe in the 



NATURE THEMES. 147 

scene here: (1) the movements of water, (2) the distance, 
(3) the force, (4) the sounds, (5) the feelings you might 
have if you were there. 

3. Draw up a plan of a composition on the theme of 
this picture. 

Suggestions concerning the scene might be indicated on the blackboard, 
their arrangement then studied, and the topical outline drawn up. 

II. Elements of Form.— Underlining or Italics. We 

can give emphasis or distinction to words by underlining 
them in writing, and putting them in italic letters in print- 
ing. 

1. Underline or italicize emphatic words. Study the 
following : 

(Written) "Not lost! You cannot mean lost!" cried the mother. 

(Printed) "Not lost! You cannot mean lost! " cried the mother. 

2. Underline or italicize foreign words. 

Louis XIV's most memorable saying was, " Uetat, c'est moi" — 
"The state— I am the state." 

3. Titles of books, stories, and plays are frequently 
italicized, sometimes also the names of ships. Study the 
following : 

Shakespeare's Julius Ccesar (or "Julius Caesar") and A Winter's 
Tale (or "A Winter's Tale"). The Century Magazine. The 
wreck of La Tribune. The loss of the Victory (or, The Vic- 
tory, or, the "Victory"). 

Note. — In titles of books either use italics (i. e., underline the word in writing) 
or use ordinary letters (i. e., not underlined) put in quotation-marks. 

Scott's Lady of the Lake, Waverley, and The Fortunes of Nigel. 
Or, Scott's " Lady of the Lake," "Waverley," and " The Fortunes of Nigel." 

Exercise i. — Write out the names of ten books you 



148 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

have read. Take care to use capitals for the main words 
and to put each title in quotation-marks or underline it. 

Exercise 2. — Write the following and underline the 
words that should be in italics. Use capitals where they 
are required: 1. 1 am not going out. There, that's settled. 
2. "O Tiger-lily/' said Alice, "I wish you could talk!" 
"We can talk," said the Tiger-lily, "when there's anybody 
worth talking to." 3. "Can all the flowers talk?" asked 
Alice. "As well as you can," said the Tiger-lily. 4. Have 
some motto — Ad astra, To the stars; or, Animo et fide, 
By courage and faith; or, Ora et labora, Pray and work. 
5. Democracy believes that vox populi — the voice of the 
people — is vox Dei — the voice of God. 6. Shakespeare's 
Tempest tells about an enchanted island. 7. Shake- 
speare's fairy play is a Midsummer-Night's Dream. 8. 
The Slough of Despond was the name of the morass in the 
Pilgrim's Progress into which Christian fell. 9. Read us 
a poem — something peaceful, like the day is done, or the 
children's hour, or the bridge. 10. Read us a poem — 
something stirring, like Scots wha hae, or Barbara Friet- 
chie, or the midnight ride of Paul Revere, or 'the battle of 
the baltic. 

Exercise 3. — Point out the opening words of the sen- 
tences or lines of poetry, the proper names, the chief words 
of titles, etc.; then write out these sentences in correct 
form, using the necessary capitals: 1. christmas comes but 
once a year. 2. His favorite motto was "what's worth 
doing is worth doing well." 3. a wind came up out of the 
sea and said o mists make room for me. 4. ireland, wales, 
and the Scottish mountains still cling, in part, to their old 
gaelic speech. 5. Among the best- known fairy stories ai 1 



NATURE THEMES. 



149 



ki little red riding-hood," " jack the giant-killer," and " Cin- 
derella." 6. Among the best child's stories are "alice in 
wonderland" and " water-babies." 7. The romans called 
the goddess of the dawn aurora, the god of day apollo, the 
goddess of night diana. 8. St. george's day is the 23d of 
april; st. andrew's, the 30th of November; st. patrick's, 
the 17th of march; st. david's, the 1st of march. 9. the 
planets are named in the order of their distance from the 
sun, the nearest is mercury; then come venus, the earth, 
mars, jupiter, saturn, uranus, neptune. 10. solomon 
grundy, born on monday, christened on tuesday, married 
on Wednesday, took ill on thursday, worse on friday, died 
on Saturday, buried on Sunday; that was the end of solomon 
grundy. 

11. From the outlaw. 

o brignall banks are wild and fair, 

and greta woods are green, 
and you may gather garlands there 

would grace a summer queen. 

and as i rode by dalton hall, 

beneath the turrets high, 
a maiden on the castle wall 

was singing merrily: 

o, brignall banks are fresh and fair, 

and greta woods are green; 
i'd rather walk with edmund there 

than reign our english queen. 

— sir waiter scott. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write an account of a 
waterfall such as that seen in the picture at the head of 
the Lesson. 



15O COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

2. Choose any similar scene you know and write about 
it. 

3. 1. Write a similar story of Niagara Falls. 2. An Ice 
Gorge. 3. Carrying Away of the Bridge. 4. A Flood 
on the Mississippi. 5. Tide on the Bay of Fundy. 6. A 
Mill-dam. 7. The Story of a Stream. 

It is essential in this composition that the personal experience should be 
faithfully recorded. The theme should be changed to suit tne pupU's en 
vironment. 



CHAPTER VI.— LETTERS. 
LESSON XLI. 

I. Oral Composition. — Discussion of letters; their 
importance; kinds of letters — letters to friends, to strangers, 
to business firms, etc. 

II. Elements of Form.— The Familiar Letter. The 

familiar letter tells of the personal experiences of the 
writer. It is informal and easy. It is, as it were, a good 
talk put on paper. 

The writing of letters is a most important element in 
composition work, both on account of the daily use of 
letters in the intercourse of life and the training it affords 
in facility in expression and simplicity and ease in style. 

Here is a letter written by a boy of thirteen, telling his 
father how they spend Sunday at his new school. 

Shelford, April 26, 1813. 
My Dear Papa, — 

Since I have given you a detail of weekly duties, I hope 
you will be pleased to be informed of my Sunday's occu- 
pations. It is quite a day of rest here, and I really look to 
it with pleasure through the whole of the week. After 
breakfast we learn a chapter in the Greek Testament — 
that is with the aid of our Bibles, and without doing it 
with a dictionary like other lessons. We then go to church. 
We dine almost as soon as we come back, and we are left 
to ourselves till afternoon church. During this time I 

1^1 



152 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

employ myself in reading, and Mr. Preston lends me any 
books for which I ask him, so that I am nearly as well off 
in this respect as at home, except for one thing, which, 
though I believe it is useful, is not very pleasant. I can 
only ask for one book at a time, and cannot touch another 
till I have read it through. We then go to church, and 
after we come back I read as before till tea-time. After 
tea we write out the sermon. I cannot help thinking that 
Mr. Preston uses all imaginable means to make us forget 
it, for he gives us a glass of wine each on Sunday, and on 
Sunday only, the very day when we want to have all our 
faculties awake, and some do literally go to sleep during 
the sermon, and look rather silly when they wake. I, 
however, have not fallen into this disaster. 

Your affectionate son, 

Thomas B. Macaulay. 

1 . Where does the writer tell his theme ? What details 
does he bring into this composition ? Are they all on the 
same theme? 

2. Study the parts of the letter and the place of each. 

Elements of Form. — Punctuation. — The Period. 
Rule 1 . The period or full stop ( . ) is used at the end 
of each declarative or imperative sentence. 

Labor is life. Where there's a will there's a way. 

Point out examples of this rule as observed in the letter 
above. 

It follows, therefore, that when a complete thought is 
expressed the sentence must end. Do not drag one sen- 
tence upon another by means of and's and so's, if they 
can be written as several short sentences. 



LETTERS. 153 

Compare the good construction in this — 

The first witness was the Hatter. He came in with a teacup 
in one hand, and a piece of bread in the other. "I beg par- 
don, your Majesty," he began, "for bringing these in; but I 
hadn't quite finished my tea when I was sent for." 

with the bad construction in this — 

The first witness was the Hatter who came in with a teacup in 
one hand, and a piece of bread and butter in the other, and 
began, "I beg pardon, your Majesty," etc. 

Keep the sentences short and nimble by making fre- 
quent use of the period. Trailing sentences are bad style. 

The written compositions should be rigorously scanned for the error of trailing 
sentences. It is the besetting fault of young writers. 

Rule 2. The titles on your books, the subjects at the 
heads of chapters, etc., usually end with a period: 

English Composition for Grammar Schools. 

This use is optional. 

Frequently numbers that are used to mark the divisions 
of a subject are followed by periods. 

I. — The Forests of North America: 1. Their extent. 2. Their 

distribution. 3. Their character. 
II. — The Enemies of the Forest, etc. 

Rule 3. Mark an abbreviated word by a period. 

Mr. (for Mister); J. (for James) Smith; Mrs. (for Mistress or 
Missis) Smith; Messrs. (for Messieurs) Brown, Shipley, & 
Co. (for Company); Oct. 10, 1907; p. (for page) 10; pp. (for 
pages) 10-20; vol. (for volume) I.; chap, (for chapter) ; etc. 
(for et cetera, and so forth) ; e. g. (for for example) ; 10 lbs. 
(for the plural of liber, pound) ; 3 oz. 

Note. — A list of the more common abbreviations is found in the Appendix 

to the author's " Elementary Composition for High Schools." 



154 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Rule 4. Usually, too, we put the period after Roman 
numerals. 

George III. of England; "Othello," Act I., Scene ii. 

This use is optional. 

Where a passage is omitted in a quotation, mark the 
omission by several periods. 

"The baby grunted again, and Alice looked anxiously into its 
face to see what was the matter with it. . . . No, there were 
no tears." 

Exercise i . — Study the use of periods in the letter that 
begins the Lesson. 

Exercise 2. — Improve the following passages by strik- 
ing out unnecessary conjunctions and making each full 
thought into a separate sentence. Read your short sen- 
tences aloud to note the improvement: 1. Alice was not a 
bit hurt, and she jumped on to her feet in a moment, and 
she looked up, but it was all dark overhead, and before her 
was another long passage, and the White Rabbit was still 
in sight hurrying down it. 2. One evening, at sunset, a 
flock of beautiful birds came out of the bushes and the 
duckling had never seen any like them before as they were 
swans and they curved their graceful necks and smoothed 
their soft white feathers and they flew away off into the 
air and the duckling was left there in the stream sad and 
sorrowful. 

Exercise 3. — Improve the punctuation of the following 
by the insertion of the necessary period. Abbreviate 
words where you can: 1. Mr and Mrs Collins were in- 
vited to visit us. 2. They arrived on Nov 20 and stayed 
till Dec. 2. 3. On Jan. 1 I sent a letter to Messrs Charles 



LETTERS. 



J 55 



Scribner's Sons. 4. The battle of Trafalgar was fought 
on Oct 21, 1805. 5. The account for Jan 5 should be 
corrected from 5 lbs of sugar, 3 lbs of butter, and 2 oz of 
pepper to 3 lbs of sugar, 5 lbs of butter, and 3^ oz of pepper. 
6. Dr Curry and Professor C Sprague Smith and Colonel 
Sprague leave on the 10th instant for Quebec, Province of 
Quebec. 7. How many miles is it from Boston, Massachu- 
setts, to San Francisco, California, and from New Orleans, 
Louisiana, to Portland, Maine? 

Exercise 4. — Abbreviate, where possible, the following. 
Mark all abbreviations you make by periods: 1. The 
Reverend Edward James Goodman will preach on Sun- 
day, February 10, and again on August 6. 2. He ad- 
dressed his letter to Messieurs Hay, Hammond, and Com- 
pany. 3. Read Books III and IV of Byron's Childe 
Harold. 4. The manuscript of the story has never reached 
this office. 5. Our friends left on the 10th instant — one for 
Denver, Colorado, and the other for Madison, Wisconsin. 
6. Send me two bags of potatoes, three pounds of butter, 
two gallons of coal-oil, and three dozen of eggs. 

III. Written Composition.— 1. Write a letter to an 
absent friend, telling him of some party — picnic or Christ- 
mas party, etc. Develop some such theme as — Everybody 
had a good time — even the dog. Rule the space of an 
envelope and write the address of the letter. 

2. Write a letter describing any local event. Address 
the envelope. 

3. Write a letter to a friend, describing an experience 
during your visit to the country or the city. Take some 
incident like watering the horses, and develop the scene 



156 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



and incidents suggested, for example, by this picture. 
Address the envelope. 




"Noon — Watering the Horses." Photograph by E. J. Rowley. 



LESSON XLII. 

I. Oral Composition. — Discussion and oral practice 
on the parts of the familiar letter. 

II. Elements of Form.— Parts of a Familiar Letter. 

The letter form involves the following elements : 

I . The place and date of writing — stated in the heading 
of the letter. 



LETTERS. 157 

* 

2. The person to whom the letter is addressed, stated 
in the salutation of the letter. 

3. The letter itself. 

4. The complimentary close of the letter, and the 
signature. 

Study the phase of these in the following letter of 

Robert Louis Stevenson to his Old Nurse, Alison 
Cunningham. 

Vailima, December 5, 1893. 

My Dearest Cummy, — 

This goes to you with a Merry Christmas and a Happy 
New Year. The Happy New Year anyway, for I think 
it should reach you about Noofs Day. I dare say it may 
be cold and frosty. Do you remember when' you used 
to take me out of bed in the early morning, carry me 
to the back windows, show me the hills of Fife, and 
quote to me — 

a A' the hills are covered wi' snaw, 
An' winter's noo come fairly " ? 

There is not much chance of that here! I wonder how 
my mother is going to stand the winter. If she can it will 
be a very good thing for her. We are in that part of the 
year which I like the best — the Rainy or Hurricane Season. 
" When it is good, it is very, very good; and when it is bad, 
it is horrid," and our fine days are certainly fine like 
heaven. Such a blue of the sea, such a green of the trees, 
and such a crimson of the hibiscus flowers, you never saw; 



158 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

and air as mild and gentle as a baby's breath, and yet not 
hot! 

The mail is on the move, and I must let up. 

With much love, I am, your laddie, 

R. L. S. 

— From " The Letters of Robert Louis Stevenson," edited by Sidney Colvin 
Charles Scribner's Sons. 

Place of the Parts. — The place in which these appear 
in the letter are proportioned to the following: 



(1) Heading. 

(2) Salutation. 

(3) Letter. 



(4) ComTlimen- 
tary close. 

(5) Signature. 



22 Warburton Avenue, 

Chicago, III. 
June 22nd, 1908. 

Dear Peter, — 

/ have some good news to tell you 



You will be glad to hear that 



Your affectionate friend, 

Jack. 



On the envelope of the letter place the name, title, and 



LETTERS. 159 

exact address of the person to whom the letter goes. Note 
the place of these and of the stamp. 




Mr. Peter Pan, 

The Tree-Tops House, 

Never-N ever- Never Land, 

Somewhere. 



There should be oral practice, with blackboard work, on variations in the 
wording of headings, salutations, etc. Written practice should include the 
study of spacing— the blocking out of the parts of the letter on the sheet, without 
using words. 



Paper and Ink. — The paper used should be white and 
unruled, with plain edges. The ink should be black. 
The size of letter paper varies, but is usually about seven 
inches by four and a half inches in double sheet. The 
same paper and ink should be used for the envelope as 
for the letter. The envelope, as a rule, should enclose the 
letter folded once. 

Note. — If the letter fills more than the first page, it is continued, usually, on 
the third or fourth page. If it will fill four pages, write on the first and fourth 
pages, then across, from bottom to top, on the second and third pages. Good 
usage varies. 

Elements of Form. — Punctuation. — The Inter- 
rogation (?). Find one in Stevenson's letter and show 



160 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

why it is used. The direct question is marked in writing 
by the interrogation, or question-mark, or query. 

"How are you getting on ? " said the Cat. 

Note. — Distinguish between (i) the direct question quoted. — He asked 
me directly, "Did you break the window?" — and the indirect question which 
enters into the regular structure of the sentence and does not require the in- 
terrogation mark. — He asked me if I broke the window. 

The Exclamation (!) — All exclamations — words, 
phrases or clauses, or sentences — may be marked by the 
exclamation mark. Find any exclamation marks in 
Stevenson's letter and study their use. 

O Liberty ! liberty ! how many crimes are committed in thy 
name ! 

Quotation- Marks (" "). — Study the use of quotation- 
marks in Stevenson's letter; also in this sentence: 

" Get to your places ! " shouted the Queen, in a voice of thunder. 

Notice that the exact words of the speaker are repeated — 
the very words. The quotations are direct. Such words 
must be marked off by quotation-marks (" "). 

Note i. — If the words of the direct quotation are brought into the sentence 
as a subordinate clause, the quotation becomes indirect, and no quotation 
marks are used. 

The Queen told them they should get to their places. 

Note 2. — A quotation within a quotation has only the single quotation- 
marks (' '). 

"Did you say 'What a pity'?" the Rabbit asked. 

Note 3. — If the quotation is broken in two by a parenthesis each part requires 
the quotation-marks. 

"There is a better than happiness," said Carlyle; "we can live without 
happiness, and in place thereof find blessedness." 

Titles of literary works are put either in quotation- 
marks or in italics. (See p. 147.) 

Every Friday afternoon the teacher read aloud to the class 
" Alice in Wonderland" (or Alice in Wonderland). 



LETTERS. 161 

Exercise i. — Explain the punctuation in the following: 
i. "Will you walk into my parlor?" said the spider to the 
fly. 2. Now let us sing, Long live the King! and Gilpin, 
long live he ! 3. Oh where ! and oh where ! is your High- 
land laddie gone? 4. The water! the water! the joyous 
brook for me. that gushes from the old gray stone beside 
the alder tree. 5. Alas! what secret tears are shed! what 
wounded spirits bleed ! 6. How sleep the brave who sink 
to rest by all their country's wishes blest ! 7. Spires whose 
" silent finger points to heaven." 

Exercise 2. — Rewrite the following, giving the proper 
punctuation: 1. How beautiful is night. A dewy fresh- 
ness fills the air. 2. The golden rule in life is Make a 
beginning. 3. It takes, says Thoreau, two to speak truth 
— one to speak and the other to hear. 4. Read us, please, 
The Water-Babies, a Fairy Tale for a Land-Baby. 5. 
What's your boy's name, good wife, asked the sailor, and 
in what good ship sailed he. 6. The evening ended with 
their singing My Country 'tis of Thee. 7. Sir Philip 
Sidney was wounded at the battle of Zutphen. He was 
about to drink some water, when he noticed a dying soldier 
gasping for thirst. Take it, he said, Drink first. Thy 
need is greater than mine. 

Exercise 3. — Rewrite the following sentences. Punc- 
tuate where necessary. Give a reason for each mark you 
use: 1. Baa baa black sheep, have you any wool 2. Is 
there no balm in Gilead 3. Ruin seize thee, ruthless king 
4. Stands Scotland where it did 5. Father of nations make 
this people one 6. O how full of briers is this working-day 
world 7. Ye mariners of England that guard our native 
seas 8. Hast thou given the horse strength hast thou 



162 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

clothed his neck with thunder 9. If she be not fair for me 
what care I how fair she be 10. Well I've often seen a 
cat without a grin, thought Alice; but a grin without 
a cat It's the most curious thing I ever saw in all 
my life 11. She dashed on to stop the train Fire fire 
murder Stop thieves Hallo the house Mad dogs Get 
out of the way Old Dan Tucker were some of the things 
she shouted 

III. Written Composition.— 1. If you live in the 
country, write a letter to a cousin in the city, telling him 
of how you spend the day. If you live in the city, write 
a similar letter to a cousin in the country. Address the 
envelope. 

2. Something important has happened in your family 
life — a moving, a fire, a sickness, the arrival of a baby, the 
present of a dog, etc. Write a letter to a friend and tell 
about it. Address the envelope. 

3. Write a letter to Santa Claus. 

4. Write a letter to a friend acknowledging receipt of a 
photograph. 

5. One of the pupils in the class is sick ; write a letter 
telling him what is going on during his absence. 



LESSON XLIII. 

I. Oral Composition. — Practice the oral composition 
of formal letters. Refer constantly to the form as given 
here or placed on the blackboard. 



LETTERS. 



163 



II. Elements of Form.— The Formal Personal Let- 
ter. When you write to a stranger or a person you know 
very slightly, you change the familiar opening of the 
friendly letter to a formal opening — Dear Sir, My Dear 
Sir, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen, Dear Madam, Dear Mesdames. 
And you add the direction at the lower left hand of the 
signature. 



Heading — Ad- 
dress and 
Date. 

Compliment- 
ary Opening. 
Letter. 



Compliment- 
ary Close. 
Signature. 

Direction. 



38 South Rittenhouse Square, 
Philadelphia, Pa., 

September 7, 1908. 

Dear Sir, — 

In response to your request I take pleasure in 
sending you my father's present address, — 
Charles C. Noble, care of Samuel Phipps, 
Esq., 2>3 Grace Street, Richmond, Va. He 
will remain in Richmond for two weeks. 

Very truly yours, 

Wilfred Noble. 

Mr. Jacob Van Kleeck, 
151 E. Fifty-first Street, 
New York City. 



Exercise i . — Address a letter of inquiry concerning a 
lost dog to its former owner. 

Exercise 2. — Address a letter to the owner of a purse 
you have found. 



Formal Invitations. — In sending out letters and cards 
for very formal occasions, the wording is still more formal. 



1 64 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Notice the way the invitation is worded and the place of 
its parts. 



The President and Officers of the Round 
Table Club request the honor of your com- 
pany at a reception to be given to Professor 
James E. Ferrier at the University Club, 
on Thursday, November 21st, at 8 p.m. 

An answer is requested. 

To Mr. and Mrs. Oliver Upton. 



Note. — Sometimes, instead of "An answer is requested," the letters R.S.V.P. 
(Repondez, s'il vous plait — Answer, if you please) are found. The former is 
preferred. 



Mr. and Mrs. Oliver Upton request the 
pleasure of the company of Mr. and Mrs. 
Joseph Johnson at dinner on Friday even- 
ing, November 22nd, at 7 o'clock, to meet 
Professor Ferrier. 

24 Welton Street, 
Friday, November 8th. 



Mr. and Mrs. Joseph Johnson accept 
with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. Upton's in- 
vitation to dinner on the evening of 
Friday , November 22nd. 

22 Avenue Road, 

Saturday , November gth. 



Note i. — The answer of regrets would read: 

"Mr. and Mrs. Johnson regret that a previous engagement (abseMce 

from town, ill-health, bereavement) prevents them from accepting," 

etc. 
Note 2. — In all except the most formal affairs the personal letter is usual. 



LETTERS. 165 

Punctuation.— The Comma ( , ). Notice that in 
speaking such a sentence as: 

The wind blew hard from the east — 

we make no pause till we reach the end of the sentence. 
So, too, in writing, the short sentence made up of the 
usual parts of the sentence (see form of analysis, p. 57) 
requires no punctuation except to mark its end. 

But if we add to, or break in upon, the sentence with 
other words, then we pause in speaking, and, in writing, we 
show the pause by punctuation. 

1 . Study the following : 

The wind, boys, blew hard from the east. 
Kitty, what do you think of it? Tell us, Kitty. 

Rule 1. — Use the comma to mark off a noun of address. 
So, too, to mark off the salutation at the head of a letter. 

My dear John, 

I received your kind letter . . . 

Note. — A dash is often added in the salutation of a letter: My dear John, — 

2. Study the following: 

However y the wind blew hard from the east. 
The wind, / can tell you, blew hard from the east. 
Cleanliness is, indeed, next to godliness. 
This is impossible, in my opinion. 

Rule 2. — Use the comma to mark off a parenthetical 
word or group of words. 

3. Study the following: 

The wind, their greatest danger, blew hard from the east. 
John Brown, my own cousin, went through that storm. 



l66 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Rule 3. — Use the comma to mark off the noun in ap- 
position. 

Note. — The noun in apposition or appositive noun is the noun that 
follows another noun as a second explanatory name for the thing spoken of. 

Exercise i. — Punctuate, and give reasons for the mark 
you use, the following sentences: 1. Friend I do you no 
wrong. 2. Wake up Dormouse. Hurry up Kitty Rover 
off with you. 3. She is still dears the prettiest doll in the 
world. 4. Nature the old nurse took the child upon her 
knee. 5. Children dear was it yesterday. 6. The water- 
fairies of course were very sorry to see him so unhappy. 
7. Music heavenly maid was then young. 8. Here 
comes a big rough dog a countryman's dog in search 
of its master. 9. Light is perhaps the most wonder- 
ful of all created things. 10. There lay the bluebird a bit 
of sky fallen on the grass. 11. The Greeks imagined Pan 
the god of Nature by the woodside on a summer noon. 
12. Come away my dears. It is high time you know we 
were all in bed. 

III. Written Composition.— 1. Write a letter to the 
father or mother of a schoolmate, asking about his ab- 
sence from school. 

2. Write a letter asking somebody to sing, or play, or 
read at some important occasion in the school. 

3. Write a card of invitation on behalf of the teachers 
and pupils of School to attend the closing exer- 
cises. 

Use, when possible, any local event for similar themes. 

4. Write a card of invitation on behalf of Mr. and 

Mrs. to be present at the wedding of their daughter 

to Mr. . State the date, hour, and place. 



LETTERS. 



167 



LESSON XLIV. 

I. Oral Composition. — Discussion of business letters. 
Brief, rapid, oral compositions on suggested themes — in- 
quiries, orders of goods, etc. Refer these, part by part, 
to the formal outline of the business letter. 

II. Elements of Form.— The Business Letter. The 

business letter should be clear and concise. Note its parts 
and their place. Point out how it differs from the per- 
sonal letter. 



Heading — Ad- 
dress and 
Date. 

Direction. 



Compliment- 
ary Opening. 

Letter. 



Compliment- 
ary Close. 

Signature. 



350 Main Street, Newark, N. J. 

September 9, 1908. 

Messrs. Tangley and Stairs, 
Real Estate, etc., 
The Century Building, New York, N . Y. 

Dear Sirs, — 

You would oblige me by sending me a copy of 
your printed list of N ew H amp shir e farms for sale 
or to rent. 

Your advertisement in yesterday's "Express" 
contained a notice of a farm for sale near Ports- 
mouth, N. H. (item No. 2864). Will you please 
send me full particulars of this. 

I am, 

Very truly yours, 

Donald Campbell. 



Note. — To facilitate the addressing of the letter in return the writer, if a 
woman, sometimes indicates who she is by signing herself: (Miss) Shirley 
Brooks Julia K. Brooks (Mrs. Robert R. Brooks). 



38 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Notice the tabulation of items usual in writing orders : 



Heading — Ad- 
dress and 
Date. 



Direction. 



Compliment- 
ary Opening. 

Letter. 



Compliment- 
ary Close. 

Signature. 



W$z Dper IBoofe §tore, 

225 Woodward Avenue, Detroit, Mich., 

February 20, 1908. 

Messrs. Charles Scribner's Sons, 
I 53~ I 57 Fifth Avenue, 

New York City. 
Dear Sirs, — 

Please forward by American Express, as fol- 
lows : — 

1 doz. King's " Geography — Advanced." 
}4 " Marsh's " Elementary Algebra." 

2 " Gordy's u History of the United States." 
% ' Lamont's u English Composition." 

y 2 " Krapp's " Elements of English Gram- 
mar." 
% " " Eugene Field Reader." 

3 copies " Scribner's Magazine" Christmas 

number, 1907. 
3 sets of Ibsen's works {translated). 

Very truly yours, 

Jas. C. Dyer. 



Punctuation. —The Comma (Continued). 4. 
the following: 

They tug, they strain, down, down they go! 
Little Indian, Sioux, or Crow, 
Little frosty Eskimo, 
Little Turk, or Japanee. 

Wrens and robins in the hedge, 
Building, perching, pecking, fluttering, 
Everywhere ! 



Study 



LETTERS. 169 

Rule 4. The parts in a series of words, or of short 
groups of words, are marked in speaking by a slight 
pause, and in writing by a comma. 

5. Notice in each of the following, as we speak the sen- 
tence, the pause in the voice where the comma comes in 
writing : 

Longfellow's home was "Craigie House," Cambridge, Massa- 
chusetts. 

The heading of the letter reads: 27 Notre Dame St., Montreal, 
P. Q., June 30, 1908. 

The letter arrived, bringing good news to all. 

The letter, long expected, arrived, which gave us all relief. 

Rule 5. The comma is used to mark off phrases and 
clauses that stand out distinctly in the sentence. 

6. Study the punctuation of this sentence : 

When angry count ten; when very angry, a hundred. (Note 
that " count" is understood after "angry.") 

Rule 6. Use the comma to mark an omitted word. 
Note the pause in the voice when you speak this sentence. 

7. Study these complex and compound sentences for 
contrast : 

Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 

Strike, but hear me. 

Laws grind the poor, and rich men rule the laws. 

Rule 7. Use the comma to indicate the separation or 
contrast of clauses. 

Exercise i. — Rule ten spaces of envelope size, and 
write in each the name and full address of ten persons you 
know. 

Exercise 2. — Explain the use of the comma in the fol- 
lowing: 1. The worse the carpenter, the more the chips. 



170 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

2. The sun is bright, the air is clear, the darting swallows 
soar and sing. 3. He that loveth a book will never want a 
faithful friend, a wholesome counsellor, a cheerful com- 
panion, an effectual comforter. 4. Every moment, as it 
passes, is of infinite value. 5. Up rose the Gorgons, star- 
ing horribly about. 6. Man, that is born of woman, is of 
few days, and full of trouble. 7. The children, being as full 
of life as they could hold, kept overflowing from the porch. 

Exercise 3. — Write out and punctuate the following. 
Give the reason for each comma you use : 1 . There little girl 
don't cry. They have broken your doll I know. 2. A 
great trout rushed out on Tom thinking him good to eat. 

3. Talent is a cistern; genius a fountain. 4. Seven little 
islands green and bare have risen from out the deep, 5. 
The first condition of goodness is something to love; the 
second something to reverence. 6. A perfect woman nobly 
planned to warn to comfort and command. 7. Robert 
Young the Swanston gardener may stand alongside of 
John Todd the Swanston shepherd. 8. Be gentle! The 
sea is held in check not by a wall of brick but by a beach 
of sand. 9. Sloth maketh all things difficult; industry all 
easy. 10. There is nobody under thirty so dead but his 
heart will stir at sight of a gypsies' camp. 

Exercise 4. — Punctuate the following. Give a reason 
for the mark you use: 1. A quiet silent rich happy place. 
2. She lifts the knocker rap rap rap. 3. The quietest 
sunniest cosiest sleep that ever he had in his life. 4. 
Comfort and consolation refreshment and happiness may 
be found in a library. 5. The birds began to gather — 
swans and brant geese divers and loons gannets and 
petrels grebes and terns. 6. Answer echo answer dying 



LETTERS. 171 

dying dying. 7. The boast of heraldry the pomp of power 
and all that beauty all that wealth e'er gave await alike 
the inevitable hour. 8. O those unsentimental monkeys! 
the ugly grinning aping chattering mischievous and queer 
little brutes. 9. " Gentleman" in its primal literal and 
perpetual meaning is a man of pure race. 10. Dusting 
darning drudging nothing is great or small. 11. Came a 
school-boy with his kite gleaming in a sea of light. 

12. To gild refined gold to paint the lily 
To throw a perfume on the violet 

To smooth the ice or add another hue 
Unto the rainbow or with taper light 
To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish 
Is wasteful and ridiculous excess. 

13. The hedge broke in the banner blew 

The butler drank the steward scrawl' d 
The fire shot up the martin flew 

The parrot scream' d the peacock squall' d 
The maid and page renew' d their strife 

The palace bang'd and buzz'd and clackt 
And all the long-pent stream of life 

Dash'd downward in a cataract. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Suppose you are mak- 
ing a dress (or a garden, etc.); write an order to a business 
house for articles wanted. 

2. Suppose you are in need of a servant (state kind). 
Write to an employment bureau, requesting that applicants 
be sent to you. 

3. Write to a bookseller and ask him to get you the 
books that you would most like to read. State the titles 
and tabulate the list. 



172 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

4. The position of office boy is vacant in the law firm 
of Messrs. Bond, Scribner, and Clark. Write a letter 
applying for the position. State (1) why you write; (2) 
what your age and education are; (3) where you live; (4) 
the wages to be paid; (5) when you can begin work; (6) 
your references. 

Similar exercises can be used with other positions — as errand girl in dress- 
maker's, clerk, stenographer. 

5. The position of teacher in the village of is 

vacant. The vacancy* is advertised in "The ■" 

newspaper. Write an application for the position. Ad- 
dress it to the Secretary of the School Board. State (1) the 
reason for your writing; (2) your age and training; (3) the 
certificate you hold and your experience; (4) the testimo- 
nials you enclose; (5) the salary to be paid; (6) the date at 
which you can begin work. 

6. Suppose that you desire a place as ; think of 

the qualities the place calls for in the person holding it; 
estimate modestly your own qualifications; then write a 
business letter applying for the place. 



CHAPTER VII.— COMMERCIAL FORMS. 

LESSON XLV. 

I. Oral Composition. — Oral practice of business forms. 

II. Elements of Form.— Business Forms. The chief 
business forms are: i. the Bill, Invoice, and Account; 
2. the Receipt; 3. the Check; 4. the Note. 

1. The Bill. 1. For Merchandise. The bill is the 
written statement of goods sold and delivered, services 
rendered, etc. A bill should state (1) The date of the 
making up of the bill; (2) the name of the person buying 
the goods or receiving the services; (3) the name of the 
person supplying the goods, etc. ; (4) the dates, articles, 
prices, totals; (5) when the payment is made, the receipt 
of payment may be written at the foot of the account. 

For the place of these details, see the form, p. 174. 
The bill of a wholesale house is usually called an invoice. 
The monthly statement of the account is often called a statement of ac- 
counts). 

Exercise i. — Suppose that the class is a dry goods 
store, or grocery, or hardware store; make out various 
bills to be sent out to customers. 

Exercise 2. — Suppose that the members of the class 
have paid the bills; receipt the payment. 

173 



174 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



Study and refer to the following form of a bill in doing 
the exercises: 



Bills rendered Monthly. All claims for errors must be made within ten days after 


receipt of goods. 


New York, N. Y.,.A u 9 ust J>.„. 1 908. 


Mrs. Joseph Jardine, 224 Madison Avenue. 




150UQU Of STONE BROTHERS 


IMPORTERS AND RETAILERS OF DRY GOODS 


22 WEST 23rd ST. 






Bill rendered, 




6 


60 










July 


2 

3 
11 


2 Caps .... 

1 Hat .... 
Credit i Han . . 

2 doz. Buttons 

j Hose .... 
/ Scissors . 


75 

12 

25 


1 
2 


50 
95 

24 

75 
75 


2 


95 








18 


2 Skirts 


95 


1 


go 














1 Tie .... 






60 


2 


95 


12 


34 


*5 


2 9 






Rece 


ived 


pay ment 














S 


TO 


NE 


BR 


OT 

An 


HE 

gust 


RS, 
3, J 9 


08. 



1 This entry is a credit for an article returned as unsatisfactory. 



COMMERCIAL FORMS. 175 

2. For Services. When the bill is not for merchandise, 
a simpler form is preferable: 



175 Warburton Avenue, 




YONKERS, N. Y.,.. Au 9 ustl >... 


1 908. 


Mr. Joseph Jar dine 




®o DR. GEORGE JENKINS, £*♦ 




For professional services rendered to date 


. $12.00. 


Received payment, 







Punctuation. — The Semicolon ( ; ). The semicolon 
marks a division in the sentence twice as great as that 
marked by the comma. 

1. Study this sentence: 

It is now sixteen or seventeen years since I saw the Queen of 
France at Versailles ; and surely never lighted on this orb a 
more delightful vision. 

Rule 1. Use the semicolon to mark off long clauses. 

2. Study the divisions of this sentence. Note the pauses 
in voice as you speak the sentence: 

United, we stand ; divided, we fall. 

Rule 2. Use the semicolon to mark off clauses that are 
themselves punctuated. 

Note. — The semicolon is used before as, viz. (videlicet, namely), e. g. (ex- 
empli gratia, for the sake of example), i. e. (id est, that is), when followed by- 
examples: 

There are several kinds of winter apples deserving special mention ; e. g. y 
Spitzenbergs, Greenings, and Northern Spies. 



176 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Exercise i. — Study the division in these long sentences. 
Notice the punctuation required in the clauses. Rewrite 
and punctuate the largest divisions with semicolons, any 
smaller ones with commas: 1. And now abideth faith hope 
and charity these three but the greatest of these is charity. 
2. As Caesar loved me I weep for him as he was valiant I 
honor him but as he was ambitious I slew him. 3. Why 
did you call him Tortoise if he wasn't one Alice asked for 
the explanation given her did not seem satisfactory. 4. 
We called him Tortoise because he taught us said the 
Mock Turtle angrily really you are very dull. 5. Honor 
all men love the brotherhood fear God honor the king. 
6. Alice did not like shaking hands with either of them 
first for fear of hurting the other one's feelings so as the 
best way out of the difficulty she took hold of both hands 
at once. 

7. They grew in beauty side by side 

They filled one home with glee 
Their graves are scattered far and wide 
By mount and stream and sea. 

8. A swarm of bees in May 
Is worth a load of hay 

A swarm of bees in June 
Is worth a silver spoon 
A swarm of bees in July 
Is not worth a fly. 

9. Go where he will the wise man is at home 
His hearth the earth his hall the azure dome. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Imagine you are in 
business (choose your business); write a letter to re- 
spectfully asking him to pay the bill enclosed for articles 



COMMERCIAL FORMS. 1 77 

bought. Rule the space of an envelope and address the 
envelope. 

2. Imagine you have been working as a at Mr. 

W 's house, for eight days, at a day; make 

out the bill. 

LESSON XLVI. 

I. Oral Composition. — Practise the oral composition 
of receipts, checks, notes. Refer constantly to the black- 
board, or below, for the form. 

II. Elements of Form.— Business Forms. 2. The 
Receipt. The receipt is the written acknowledgment of 
money received. It involves the elements of (1) place 
and date; (2) the person from whom the money is received 
and (3) the amount; (4) the purpose of the payment; (5) 
the signature of the person who is paid. 



$210 Minneapolis, Minn.,.. Aw™L 1 . 7 .?.... 1 90.?. 

Witttibtb Of James J. Little 

Two hundred and ten dollars, in full of all demands to date. 

CURTIS & SN ELLIN G, 
Per W. 



Note i. — If the receipt is for a payment on account, say "on account" in- 
stead of "in full of all demands to date." 

Note 2. — If it is a payment for a particular purpose, say so — "on account of 
purchase of Lot 22, Haylard Street." 

Note 3. — The signature " per W." means that a clerk named W is signing 

on behalf of the firm. 



178 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

3. The Check. The check is (1) an order; (2) stating 
date and place; (3) (usually) numbered; (4) on a bank 
where you have money deposited; (5) to pay a stated 
amount; (6) to a certain person; (7) and signed by 
you. 

Note the place of these various elements in the following 
form: 



No. 29 ±. New York, N. Y., Se P temher A. 1 90 A. 

C!)e Jfteto gorfe proOttce <£ubm$z IBank 

MADISON AVE. BRANCH 

p ay [ Messrs. Stone Brothers QX Order 



SI 2 T777 Gertrude Jar dine. 



Note i. — The check so drawn must be endorsed, i. e., signed across the back, 
by Stone Brothers, before it is payable at the bank. 

Note 2. — If the check were drawn — "Pay to Messrs. Stone Brothers or 
Bearer," it is payable at the bank without endorsement. 

Note 3. — If the person drawing up a check wishes to present it at the bank 
to draw out money himself, the check should then read — "Pay to self (or cash)." 

4. The Note, or Promissory Note. The note is 

(1) a promise to pay to a stated person — the payee; (2) a 
stated amount; (3) at a stated time; (4) usually with stated 
interest; (5) at a stated place; and (6) signed by the per- 
son making the promise — the maker of the note. 



COMMERCIAL FORMS. 179 

Note the place of these in the accompanying form: 



$275^h Trenton, N. J., . Se P tember J.>. 1 90 8 

Thirt y. da y s ... after date J promise to pay to the 

order of Messrs. Stone Bros. 

Two hundred and seventy-five y2_a_ J) llars 

at the First National Bank of New York, with interest at 
the rate of six per cent. 

Value received. RQGER Q , NE1L 

No. 67 ' Due 0ctoher 7 ' ,908 ' 



Note i. — If the note is made by several persons, it is called a joint note 
and should read: "We jointly and severally promise to pay" etc. 

Roger O'Neil. 
James O'Neil. 
Note 2. — If the note must be paid at any time on the demand of the person 
in whose favor it is made, read: "On demand, I promise," etc. 

Note 3. — "A brief written acknowledgment of a debt, not payable to order 
and not transferable by endorsement like a promissory note" (Webster) was 
known as a due-bill. 

Punctuation. — The Colon (: ). I. The heaviest mark 
within the sentence is the colon. Study this sentence: 

The two best rules for a system of rhetoric are : first, have 
something to say; and next, say it. 

Rule I . The colon separates clauses when the clauses 
themselves are punctuated by semicolons. 

2. Study this sentence: 

Of all sad words of tongue or pen, 

The saddest are these: "It might have been!" 



180 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Rule 2. The colon is used after words introducing a 
quotation, especially a long quotation. 

Note i. — The colon before a long quotation is frequently strengthened by a 
dash. 
Lincoln's speech at Gettysburg concluded :■■" Government of the 
people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the 
earth." 
Note 2. — Some prefer the colon and dash after the salutation of a letter. 
My dear Friend :■■ 

You will be surprised to learn that . . . 
Note 3. — The colon is used, like the semicolon, before enumerations: The 
trees are covered with fruit: pears, peaches, plums, apples. 

Parentheses ( ). Notice that we can mark off a paren- 
thetical expression by two marks ( ) called parentheses 
{par en' thes tz). 

The boat glided gently on, sometimes among beds of weeds 
{which made the oars stick fast in the water) and sometimes 
under trees. 

Note i. — Dashes are usually preferred to parentheses for such use. See p. 184- 

Note 2. — Parentheses are especially used for marking off division numbers 
in enumerations: What is the difference between (1) sorrow and grief; (2) 
struggle and fight; (3) foolish and silly? 

Note 3. — Brackets [ ] are sometimes used for marking off a part that does 
not directly belong to the passage in which it is placed. 

Note 4. — The term parenthesis is also used to describe the passage itself so 
introduced into the sentence and marked off. 

Exercise i. — Suppose the class to be tenants of rented 
houses; draw up checks for the month's rent. 

Exercise 2. — Suppose that the members of the class 
own houses rented to tenants; draw up receipts for the 
month's rent. 

Exercise 3. — Suppose the class to be in various kinds 
of business and needing to pay for goods by notes; draw 
up the notes. 

Exercise 4. — Study the division of the following sen- 
tences. Rewrite, adding the necessary punctuation: 1. 



COMMERCIAL FORMS. 181 

The carpenter's voice was heard above the sound of plane 
and hammer singing Awake my soul and with the sun 
thy daily stage of duty run. 2. We say and with perfect 
truth I wish I had Miss MacWhirter's signature to a check 
for five thousand pounds. 3. A was an apple pie B bit it 
C cut it D dealt it E ate it. 4. It was considered "vulgar" 
a tremendous word in Cranford to give anything expensive 
in the way of eatable or drinkable at the evening enter- 
tainments. 5. The spirit of Job was Shall we said he take 
good at God's hands, and not be content to take evil also? 
6. Matty was now her mother's darling, and promised like 
her sister at her age to be a great beauty. 7. A man comes 
to market and says I have a pair of hands, and he obtains 
the lowest wages. Another man comes and says I have 
something more than a pair of hands I have truth and 
fidelity. He gets a higher price. Another man comes 
and says I have something more I have hands and strength 
and fidelity and truth and skill. He gets more than either 
of the others. 

8. I met a little cottage girl 

She was eight years old she said 

Her hair was thick with many a curl 

That clustered round her head. 

III. Written Composition.— 1. Write a business letter 

to at , saying that you enclose check, or 

postal money-order (a form should be got at the post- 
office) in payment of goods purchased. Draw up the 
check (or money-order). 

2. Write a letter to agreeing to his offer of sale 

of and enclose check in payment. 



182 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

LESSON XLVII. 

I. Oral Composition. — Oral practice of composition 
for the postal-card, the telegram, the advertisement. 

II. Elements of Form.— i. The Postal-Card. The 

postal-card is a cheap, convenient means of writing, where 
the matter is brief and unimportant. It is especially use- 
ful for routine notices. Because of its lack of cover it is 
not well suited to personal correspondence. The postal- 
card is only a brief letter, differing in form from the busi- 
ness letter by omitting (usually) the direction, except on 
the face of the card. 



153-157 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK, N. Y. 

June 7, igo8. 
Dear Sir, — 

You are respectfully notified that your subscription to 

" Scribner's Magazine" will expire with the current month. 

We shall be glad to have you renew your subscription for the 

ensuing year, and to receive from you the year's subscription 

of $j. Truly yours, 

SCRIBNER'S MAGAZINE. 



Exercise i. — Send a postal-card to the agent of the 
nearest railway station asking for a time-table. 

Exercise 2. — Notify by postal-card the members of 

the Society that the next meeting will be held on 

and that the business of the meeting will be . 

2. The Telegram. — The telegram is the briefest pos- 
sible expression of the message to be sent. Its speed 



COMMERCIAL FORMS. 183 

makes it valuable in emergencies. Its great limitation is 
its cost. Its usual length is ten words, the limit for the 
lowest charge of the telegraph companies. The heading, 
direction, and signature are free. Study the form of this 
telegram. 



Jersey City, N. J., September 10, igo8. 
To WILLIAM WALTERSOX, 
Troy , JV. Y. 

Frank somewhat better. Aii7iie leaving. 



Could Mother come on immediately? 



Walter. 



Exercise 3. — Suppose you have just escaped a railway 
accident; telegraph your mother particulars. 

Exercise 4. — Suppose you have just missed your train. 
Telegraph home the particulars of your arrival. 

Exercise 5. — Suppose some one of your family is ill. 
Telegraph for help. 

3. The Advertisement. — The advertisement calls for 
brevity and emphasis. The knack of putting things in a 
fresh and attractive way is here in high request. 









TO LET. 






H 


ouse 


— ten rooms ; well 'furnished ; Park location; river 


view ; 


garden . 


July, August, September 


Rent for 


the 




season 


$200. 












W. 


0. WILMOT, Fishkill-on 


-Hudson, A T . 


Y. 



1 84 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Exercise 6. — Suppose your dog (or watch, etc.) is lost; 
write an advertisement describing him and offering a 
reward. 

Exercise 7. — Suppose the class is engaged in various 
businesses; let each pupil write some advertisement in 
accordance with his chosen occupation. 

Punctuation. — The Dash ( — ). Rule 1. Notice 
that a break in a sentence can be indicated by a dash. 

No warmth — no cheerfulness — no healthful ease — 

No comfortable feel in any member — 
No shade — no shine — no butterflies — > no bees — 

No fruits — no flowers — no leaves — no birds — ■ 
No-vember. 

The dash may mark the breaking in of a parenthesis. 

Alas ! little kitty — do give her your pity — 

Had lived seven years, and was never called pretty! 

Rule 2. Notice how the dash can prepare after a 
series for a summing up: 

The commons, and roads, and footpaths, and the seashore, our 
grand and varied coast — these are all ours. 

Rule 3. Notice that the dash is frequently used with 
a comma or colon before a direct quotation. The colon 
and dash are preferred before long quotations, especially 
when the quotation begins on the next line. 

Wordsworth writes in his "Ode to Duty" :^— 

"Thou dost preserve the stars from wrong; 

And the eternal heavens through thee are fresh and strong." 

Rule 4. The dash is used also for omitted letters. 

The father of W had hitherto exercised the humble pro- 

fession of house-painter at N , near Oxford. 



COMMERCIAL FORMS. 185 

The Apostrophe. — Note the different letters omitted: 
I've shot my arrow. Where's yours? Let's find them. 

Rule i. — The apostrophe marks the omission of a let- 
ter or letters in a word. 

Note. — Abbreviations of titles, etc., are indicated by the period. See p. 153. 

Rule 2. The apostrophe is used to mark (1) the pos- 
sessive case of nouns (see p. 96). 

John's hat. James's hat. The men's hats. Ladies' hats. 

The Hyphen (-). — Rule i. The hyphen (hi'jen) is 
used in joining certain words made up of two or more 
other words: 

To-day. now-a-days. swan's-down, a dog-in-the-manger policy. 

Rule 2. When a word is divided at the end of a line, 
the division is indicated by a hyphen. 

Exercise 8. — Rewrite the following sentences, taking 
care to add the necessary punctuation — apostrophe, hy- 
phen, and parentheses: i. There are no children now a 
days. 2. Hes an ill boy that goes like a top only when 
hes whipped. 3. The sharp, sickle edged grass cut the 
boys feet. 4. Lightning and thunder heaven's artillery 
filled the sky. 5. The cows stood knee deep in the black 
mire. 6. All the children in their beds! Its past eight 
oclock. Lets be off ! 7. The lovely atmosphere of far off 
homes. 8. I did not always I fear make allowances enough. 
9. In a cowslips bell I lie. 10. There is many a slip twixt 
the cup and the lip. 11. If it were done, when tis done, 
then twere well it were done quickly. 



186 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

12. Beautys ensign yet 

Is crimson in thy lips and in thy cheeks, 
And deaths pale flag is not advanced there. 

13. All the names I know from nurse: 
Gardeners garters, Shepherds purse ? 
Bachelors buttons, Ladys smock, 
And the Lady Hollyhock. 

Exercise 9. — Rewrite the following sentences. Use 
the dash and other necessary punctuation marks:- 1. Gess- 
ler said in a surly tone to Tell You were not sure of your 
first shot. 2. He cried out aloud Away out of my sight. 
3. The word of a gentleman is as good as his bond some- 
times better. 4. Ho sailor of the sea how's my boy my 
boy. 5. Work is the cure for all the maladies and miseries 
of man honest work which you intend getting done. 6. 
We must all toil or steal. 7. The air struck chill but 
tasted good and vigorous in the nostrils a fine, dry, old 
mountain atmosphere. 8. We heard the old clock on the 
stair, For ever never never for ever. 9. Then they rode 
back, but not not the six hundred. 10. Christmas must 
be a rich old fellow what money he gives away. 11. Jack 
and Kate and little Annie he remembers every one. 12. 
When you have to turn into a chrysalis you will some day 
you know and then into a butterfly, you will feel rather 
queer, said Alice to the caterpillar. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Let each member of 
the class choose a business; then write one or more ad- 
vertisements appropriate to his chosen occupation. 

These might be combined with certain compositions into the MS. of a sup- 
posed newspaper — "School News." Telegraphic news, letters to the editor, 
etc., can readily be added. Consult a newspaper for the form. 



COMMERCIAL FORMS. 187 

2. (1) Write a telegram of ten words to your absent 
sister, telling her some unexpected news. (2) Follow the 
telegram with a letter. 

3. (1) Write an advertisement of a house or apartment 
wanted. (2) Write a letter describing one that you have 
to let. 

4. (1) Write an advertisement for a servant, a clerk, 
etc., wanted. (2) Write a reply applying for the place 
advertised. 



CHAPTER VIIL— HISTORICAL 
NARRATIVE. 

LESSON XLVIII. 
I. Oral Composition.— Study the story of: 
Queen Esther. 

In the days when Ahasuerus was king of Persia he took 
for a wife Esther, the beautiful niece of Mordecai the Jew, 
a captive in Persia. At Mordecai's command Esther did 
not reveal to the king either her people or her kindred. 
And the king so loved Esther that he set a royal crown 
upon her head. 

Mordecai stayed near the palace that he might have 
news of Esther and as he sat in the king's gate he heard 
two of the king's chamberlains plotting against the king's 
life. He told Esther of the plot, and she in turn informe'd 
the king, and after inquiry the two traitors were put to 
death. And Mordecai's service was entered in the 
chronicles of the kingdom. 

The king then made a favorite of a man named Haman, 
and all the people of the court were commanded to bow 
down to him. Mordecai would not do this, and Haman 
was very angry. When Haman found that Mordecai was 
a Jew, he determined to destroy not only Mordecai but all 

188 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 189 

of his race that were in the kingdom. He persuaded the 
king to send out orders throughout all the kingdom to 
destroy all Jews, young and old, on the thirteenth day of 
the twelfth month. 

There was great mourning among the Jews. Mordecai 
sent word to Esther to go to the king and make supplica- 
tion to him for her people. But she sent word in answer 
that she dared not go into the king's presence without his 
summons, lest she should be put to death. Mordecai 
reminded her that her people were in sore need, that she 
herself was a Jew, and that she might be the savior of 
her race. And Esther replied: 

"Fast ye for me three days. I also and my maidens 
will fast, and so I will go unto the king; and if I perish, 
I perish." 

When she ventured into the inner court the king stretched 
out his golden sceptre to her and said : 

"What wilt thou, Queen Esther, and what is thy re- 
quest? and it shall be given thee to half of the king- 
dom." 

But she asked only that he would come w T ith Haman to 
her banquet that night and the next night. 

Now t Haman had prepared a high gallows on which he 
determined to hang Mordecai. But it chanced that the 
king that night could not sleep and ordered the book of 
the records to be read to him, and he heard again how 
Mordecai had saved him from treachery. So when Ha- 
man came to beg for Mordecai' s death the king asked 
him: 

"What shall be done unto the man whom the king 
delights to honor?" 



190 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Haman, sure that he himself was meant, replied: 

"Put on him the royal apparel. Let him ride on the 
king's horse through the city, with a herald before to 
proclaim, ' Thus shall it be done to the man whom the 
king delights to honor.'" Then the king said: 

"That man is Mordecai the Jew. Do to him as thou 
hast said." 

The next night the king and Haman came again to 
banquet with Esther, and the king bade Esther ask for 
her heart's desire. She replied : 

"Let my life be given me at my petition, and my people 
at my request: for we are sold, I and my people, to be 
destroyed, to be slain, and to perish." 

The king asked her, "Who is he that presumes to plot 
against thy people?" And Esther answered, "The ad- 
versary and enemy is this wicked Haman!" 

The king gave commands. They hanged Haman on 
the very gallows he had prepared for Mordecai, and gave 
Mordecai the authority which Haman had held. At the 
queen's request letters were sent throughout the kingdom, 
and the Jews were spared. 

To this day the Jews remember their deliverance, and 
keep the Feast of Purim for two days in the year, as days 
of rejoicing, to commemorate the courage and devotion of 
Queen Esther. 

1. Give a summary title for the story of Esther. Tell 
the story briefly, using about eight sentences. 

2. What do you think of Mordecai, of Haman, of 
Esther ? Of the power of the Persian king ? Why is the 
story of Esther a good story? 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 



I 9 I 



3. Give, in other words, the sense of the following 
phrases: 1. Esther was silent at Mordecai's command. 2. 
The chamberlains plotted against the king's life. 3. After 
inquiry the traitors were put to death. 4. The people were 
in sore need. 5. Mordecai saved the king from treachery. 
6. The feast of Purim is kept to commemorate the devo- 
tion of Queen. Esther. 

II. Principles of Narration. — Narration and Narra- 
tive. Narration treats of the art of telling a story. The 
story may be a fable or a fairy tale, an incident in life or 
an event in history, a romance or a novel, a biography of 
a man or the history of a nation. When we give the 
details that make up the story in the order of their occur- 
rence we make a narrative. 

Exercise i . — Show that the story of Esther is a narrative, 
Principles of Narration. — Narration as an art has a 
few principles which, however difficult to carry out well, 
are easy to see, and in some degree to follow. 

1. The story should deal with one main theme, and 
only one; it should have unity. 

Exercise 2. — What is the theme of the story of Esther? 
Study the parts of the story of Esther. How many parts 
are there? How do they all fit into the main story? 

2. The details of the story should follow the order of 
their occurrence — the order of time. This gives an 
orderly sequence to the narrative. 

Exercise 3. — Study the sequence of events in the story 
of Esther. Justify the order. 

3. The story should be interesting. Interest may be 
aroused through the characters, or through the incidents, 



192 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

or through both. The characters may show the conflict of 
the good and the bad, and the incidents may entangle the 
characters and increase our interest in them because of 
their struggle. 

Exercise 4. — (1) What is interesting — good or evil — in 
the king of Persia, Mordecai, Haman, Esther? 

(2) What is interesting in the incidents of the story — how 
Esther became queen? the plot against the king's life? the 
pride of Haman? the devotion of Esther? the irony of 
life in the relations of Haman and Mordecai ? 

4. The incidents of the story may give rise to a com- 
plication or entanglement that is resolved in the ending; 
the narrative is then said to have a plot. Plot interest 
intensifies the interest of narrative. 

Exercise 5. — Point out the elements of the plot of the 
story of Esther. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Draw up a topical out- 
line of the story of Queen Esther, taking care to group the 
details according to the main parts of the story. Write 
the story. 

2. Write the story of Esther in dramatic form (see 
Shakespeare's " Merchant of Venice'' for the form). 

This should be done by the class, scene by scene, through successive class 
periods. The compositions should be tested by being read aloud, and possibly 
acted. 

3. Tell, briefly, a story of some character famous in 
Bible story: 1. Joseph. 2. Moses. 3. Joshua. 4. Samuel. 
5. Saul. 6. David. 7. Solomon. 8. Daniel. 

4. Or in ancient history: 1. Alexander the Great. 2. 
Cyrus. 3. Socrates. 4. Regulus. 5. Hannibal. 6. Julius 
Caesar. 7. Constantine. 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 193 



LESSON XLIX. 

I. Oral Composition. — The Death of Roland. 

O for a blast of that dread horn, 
On Fontarabian echoes borne, 

That to King Charles did come, 
When Roland brave and Oliver, 
And every paladin and peer, 

On Roncesvalles died! 

— By Sir Walter Scott. From "Marmion. " 

For six years Charlemagne (sharV main), Emperor of 
the Franks, had fought the Saracens in Spain. Then the 
heathen king, Marsile, sent to sue for peace, and Ganelon, 
one of the Emperor's knights, was sent as envoy and ar- 
ranged the terms of peace with the Saracens. Now 
Ganelon w*as a traitor, with his heart full of hatred and 
jealousy of Roland, the greatest of the paladins. 1 He 
betrayed to Marsile, for a bribe, the route the Emperor's 
forces were to take as they turned homeward. 

Thus it was that Roland, left in command of twenty 
thousand men, when making his way through the narrow 
pass of Roncesvalles 2 (rons r vahl), was suddenly attacked 
by the Saracen army. The fight was furious. Side by 
side with Roland fought Oliver, another of the paladins, 
who would not be outdone in any feat of daring. But it 
was a losing fight, against fearful odds. At last only fifty 
Christians were left. Then Roland blew his mighty horn 
to let Charlemagne know of their sore strait. His first 

1 The twelve peers of Charlemagne — paragons of chivalry. 

2 In Navarre. 



194 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

blast reached the ears of Charles thirty leagues away, but 
Ganelon persuaded him that Roland did but hunt the 
deer. Again Roland blew, this time so hard that the blood 
gushed from his mouth. Charlemagne heard it again, but 
Ganelon said to him, " Roland would never stoop to ask 
for help against the enemy." Yet a third time the horn 
sounded, and Charles said, "That is a long blast." Then 
one of his councillors spoke out, "Sire, it is Roland, and 
he has blown his horn because the battle goes sore against 
him. The man who has betrayed him now wishes us not 
to guess the truth. I counsel you to hasten to the aid of 
our noble hero." 

Back went the Frankish army, hastening to Ronces- 
valles. Meanwhile another heathen force had pressed on 
and was making a fresh attack on the little Christian band, 
and was overwhelming it. Then the Frankish trumpets 
were heard, and the war-cry of "Montjoie!" echoed 
through the rocky pass, and the heathen fled. But the 
gallant rear-guard was no more. Oliver was slain. 
Roland, feeling death upon him, laid himself down upon 
the greensward, and placed beside him his horn and his 
sword. His face he turned toward the heathen host, that 
the Emperor when he came might know he had died a 
victor. Then repenting him of all his sins, Roland raised 
his mailed right hand to heaven, commended his soul to 
God and the angels, and died. 

I . Suggest some other titles for the story of " The Death 
of Roland." What parts does the story fall into? How do 
the paragraphs stand for these parts? Which sentences 
serve as Introduction ? Which as the Body of the narra- 
tive? Which as Conclusion? 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 



195 



2. Has the story unity? What is the order of the inci- 
dents? What is interesting in the characters? What is 
interesting in the incidents ? What complication increases 
the interest? 

3. Point out any words or phrases that are new to you. 
Discuss their meaning. 

4. Draw up a topical outline (including a map of the 
scenes) of the story. 

II. Principles of Narration. (Continued.) — 5. The 
story should have a good resolution or denouement 

{day noo mah {ng) f ). The resolution should come out of 
the complication and satisfy us as the natural and right 
result. 

Exercise i. — 1. How does Queen Esther solve the 
difficulty of her story? 

2. How does Roland seek to solve his difficulty? Does 
he do so ? 

6. The story should have a good ending. This does 
not necessarily mean a happy ending. It means that the 
ending is the right and natural outcome from the resolu- 
tion. 

Exercise 2. — 1. Has the story of Esther a good ending ? 
What elements of interest are there in that ending ? 

2. Has the story of Roland a good ending? What ele- 
ments of interest are there in that ending? 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Tell, from memory, 
the story of the Death of Roland. 

Review what you write and test it by the principles of 
narration. 



196 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

2. Tell a similar story of any one of the following: 
1. Thermopylae. 2. How Horatius Kept the Bridge (see 
Plutarch, or Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient Rome"). 3. 
The Battle of Cregy or Agincourt. 4. The Defeat of the 
Armada. 5. The Death of the Swiss Guards of Louis 
XVI. 6. The Fall of the Bastile (see Carlyle, " French 
Revolution"). 7. The Relief of Lucknow. 8. The Wreck 
of the u Birkenhead." 9. The Defence of Khartoum. 



LESSON L. 

I. Oral Composition. Study the story of : 
The Battle of the Standard. 

The battle between the English and the invading Normans, under William 
the Conqueror, was fought on October 14, 1066, at the hill of Senlac, seven 
miles to the north-west of Hastings, in Sussex. It was the first great step toward 
the conquest of England by the Normans. 

On the crown of the hill, on the point where the ground 
begins to slope to the south-east, the point directly in the 
teeth of the advancing army, on the spot marked to after 
ages by the high altar of the abbey church of Battle, were 
planted the twofold ensigns of England. There, high 
above the host, flashed the Dragon of Wessex, and there 
was pitched the Standard, the personal ensign of the King, 
a glorious gonfanon, 1 blazing with gems, and displaying, 
wrought in the purest gold, the old device of Ete'oklos, the 
armed warrior advancing to battle. Around this special 
post of honor and danger were ranged the choicest warriors 
of England. And there, with his foot on his native earth, 

l Or gon'falon, an ensign borne on a lance. 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 197 

sharing the toils and dangers of his meanest soldier, with 
the kingly helm upon his brow, and the two-handled 
sword upon his shoulder, stood Harold, King of the 
English. 

Gradually, after many warriors had fallen, resistance 
grew fainter, but still even now the battle seemed doubtful. 
Many of the best and bravest of the English had died, but 
not a man had fled; the Standard still waved as proudly 
as ever; the King still fought beneath it. While Harold 
lived, while the horse and his rider still fell beneath his 
axe, the heart of England failed not, the hope of England 
had not wholly passed away. Around the twofold ensigns 
the war was still fiercely raging, and at that point every 
eye and every arm in the Norman host was directed. The 
battle had raged since nine in the morning, and evening 
was now drawing on. 

As twilight was coming on, a mighty shower of arrows 
was launched on its deadly errand against the defender of 
the Standard. There Harold still fought; his shield 
bristled with Norman shafts; but he was still un wounded 
and unwearied. At last another arrow, more charged 
with destiny than its fellows, went still more truly to its 
mark. Falling like a bolt from heaven, it pierced the 
King's right eye. He clutched convulsively at the weapon, 
he broke off the shaft, his axe dropped from his hand, and 
he sank in agony at the foot of the Standard. The King 
was thus disabled, and the fate of the day was no longer 
doubtful. 

Twenty Norman knights now bound themselves to 
lower or bear off the ensigns which rose as proudly as ever 
where Harold lay dying beneath them. But his comrades 



198 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

still fought. Most of the twenty paid for their venture 
with their lives, but the survivors succeeded in their at- 
tempt. Harold's own Standard of the Fighting Man was 
beaten to the earth; the golden Dragon, the ensign of 
Cuthred and Alfred, was carried off in triumph. 

Harold had fallen, as his valiant brothers had fallen 
before him. Everything turned on the life of one man, 
and the one man who could have guarded and saved 
England was taken from her. 

— By E. A. Freeman. From "The Norman Conquest." 

1 . Draw a map of the field of battle. 

2. Who were the opposing peoples? Who were the 
leaders? What did the battle mean for either side? 

3. Picture the scene on the English side. Picture the 
scene on the Norman side. Describe King Harold fight- 
ing. Describe his death. Picture the scene after his 
death. What did the loss of the battle mean to the Eng- 
lish ? — the gaining of it to the Normans ? 

4. Discuss the meaning of: 1. The crown of the hill. 
2. In the teeth of the army. 3. After ages. 4. The high 
altar. 5. A glorious gonfanon. 6. This special post 0} 
honor. 7. The battle seemed doubtful. 8. The standard 
waved proudly. 9. Riders fell beneath his axe. 10. The 
heart of England failed not. 11. The battle had raged. 
12. An arrow, charged with destiny, went to its mark. 13. 
The fate of the day. 14. The golden Dragon was carried 
off in triumph. 15. The one man to save England was 
taken from her. 

II. Principles of Narration. (Continued.) — 7. Pro- 
portion. The parts of a story vary in importance; they 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 



199 



should be written about according to their importance. 
Say little about the less important and more about the 
important elements of the story. This means giving due 
proportion to the parts. 

Exercise i. — Study: 1. the unity of the narrative 
above. 2. the order of the details. 3. the interest ex- 
cited in the incidents and in the persons of the story. 4. 
the heightening of interest in the turning point of the 
battle. 5. the ending. 

Exercise 2. — Block off the spaces used in telling the 
story of "The Battle of the Standard." Discuss the re- 
lation of the length of the paragraphs to the parts of the 
story they express. 

Elements of Style. — Person. Some words — pronouns 
and sometimes verbs — distinguish, by inflection or other- 
wise, the person in the sentence, so that we can tell, by the 
word or form, the person that is speaking, the person 
spoken to, and the person spoken of. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


I speak. 


we speak. 


thou speaker/, you speak. 


you speak. 


he {she, it) speaks. 


they speak. 



Exercise 3. — Using the thought to stand on a hill, make 
a statement (1) about yourself, (2) about a person you 
speak to, (3) about a person you are speaking of. Note 
variations in the pronouns used and in the form of the 
verb. 

This variation to indicate the person signified is termed 
person. 



200 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

1 . If the person speaking is signified, the word indicating 
that is of the first person : 

/ speak. We speak. Give it to us, to me. 

2. If the person spoken to is signified, the word indicating 
that is of the second person. 

Thou writest. You (or ye, in poetry) write. 

3. If the person spoken of is signified, the word indicat- 
ing that is of the third person : 

The man writes. He {she) writes. They write. // is for him, 
her, and them. 

Note. — When several persons occur in the same sentence it is usual to men- 
tion them in the order second, third, first. Why? 

You, Henry, and / make up the committee. 

Number (see p. 76 ff). — Notice that the verb, where it 
has inflections, changes in agreement not only with the 
person but with the number of its subject. 

Study these forms: 

Singular. Plural. 

p C I am writing. C we are writing. 

( I write. \ we write. 

( thou art writing. ( 

_ 1 . . & 1 you are writing. 

2D Per. < you are writing. < 

J , . j you write. 

V thou writes/. v 

(he (she, it) is writing. ( they are writing. 

^ I he (she, it) writes. ( they write. 

Exercise 4. — Take the verbs stand, plant, flash, range y 
share, fall; make statements about a singular and a plural 
noun or pronoun subject; note any changes (or inflec- 
tions) in the form of the verb. 

Agreement. — The verb, as far as its few inflections 
allow it, changes its form according to the person and 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 201 

number o) its subject. This is called the agreement of 
the verb or concord of subject and predicate. 

Many errors in writing arise from a disregard of this 
rule. 

Note i. — One great cause of errors in agreement is through our peculiar use 
of "there" as a preparatory subject. 

There are few kings braver than King Robert the Bruce. 
"There" is only the sign that the real subject is put after the verb. 

Few kings (there) are braver than King Robert the Bruce. 
In statements introduced by "there," be careful to make the verb agree with 
its real subject. 

Exercise 5. — Tell the person and number of each noun 
and pronoun. Point out any inflection for person and 
number in the verbs used. Tell why the verb changes 
when it does change: 1. So we were left galloping, Joris 
and I. 2. How they will greet us! 3. He has hard work 
who has nothing to do. 4. Who is Sylvia? What is she, 
that all the swains commend her? 5. Thou sayest that 
thou art a king; prove it to me. 6. Ye clouds that far 
above me soar. 7. Curses, they say, come home to roost. 
8. Hail! to thee, blithe spirit, bird thou never wert. 9. 
You know we French stormed Ratisbon. 10. Know thy- 
self. 11. Know what thou canst work at. 12. This child 
I to myself shall take; she shall be mine, and I will make 
a lady of my own. 13. Love thyself last. 14. We are 
too easy on ourselves and too hard on others. 15. Her 
quiet eyelids closed — she had another morn than ours. 
16. It is a condition that confronts us — not a theory. 17. 
We carved not a line and we raised not a stone — but we 
left him alone with his glory. 

18. "Let all the ends thou aim'st at be thy country's, 

Thy God's, and truth's; then if thou fall'st, O Cromwell, 
Thou fall'st a blessed martyr." 



202 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Exercise 6. — Correct any errors of agreement in the 
verbs of the following. Give the reason for the correction 
made: i. In the bag there was six apples. 2. The bag 
certainly don't hold more. 3. The composition of John 
and Maggie are both on the desk. 4. How many is there 
here who can tell me when Shakespeare lived ? 5. Neither 
he nor his brother have been at school for a month. 6. 
"Not one of the sentences in my exercises/' said the boy, 
"were wrong." 7. Are either of these sentences correct? 
8. Every new and every old argument come up in this 
discussion. 9. The gun with the bayonet weigh the soldier 
down by the end of his day's march. 10. This is one of 
the most interesting essays that has ever been read in the 
class. 11. In this case prudence, as well as courage, point 
out what we should do. 12. To the courage, industry, and 
endurance of the pioneers are due the settlement of 
America. 13. The criminal carelessness of so many officials 
have brought about a rigid enforcement of discipline. 14. 
Too narrow a range of interests tend to dwarf the mind. 
15. Nothing but the warning shouts of the firemen, the 
blows of their axes, and the hissing of water on the flames 
were heard near the burning house. 16. The element of 
mystery and romance form a great part of the charm of 
"The Ancient Mariner." 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Draw up an outline of 
the story of the Battle of the Standard, using your map. 
Write the story of the battle. Review what you write in 
the light of the principles of narration. 

2. Choose any other battle you know of and write the 
story of it. 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 203 

LESSON LI. 

I. Oral Composition. — Exercises in developing histori- 
cal narrative. Following the method of developing a na- 
ture theme, discuss the details and the treatment of one 
or more of the themes below (III). 

II. Elements of Style.— Order of Words. Does the 
place in which a word stands in the sentence affect the 
meaning of the sentence? Are there usual places to ex- 
press usual meanings and relations ? 

1. Study the usual order of subject, verb, and object. 

(1) Compare — 

King Robert called his barons. The barons called King Robert, 
and study what makes us know who called and who was 
called. 

We see then that the subject usually precedes the predi- 
cate in declarative sentences. 

(2) Compare — 

King Robert was ready to die. Was King Robert ready to die ? 

We see that the subject usually follows the verb (or its 
auxiliary) in interrogative sentences. 

(3) We see also from the foregoing sentences the place 
of the object of the verb — it usually follows the verb. 

2. Study the place of attributes of the noun. 
(1) Compare — 

The gallant Lord Douglas. The -flying foe. His few sur- 
viving companions. 

A sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener with 
constant use. 

The attributive adjective usually precedes its noun. 



204 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

(2) Study the place of attributive phrase and clause. 

A noble figure, clad all in armor. 

Here comes Caesar's body, mourned by Mark Antony. 

A poor peasant girl whose work was to tend sheep. 

An idler is a watch that wants both hands. 

An October day of rare brightness and warmth. 

The adjective phrase or adjective clause usually follows 
its noun. 

In all cases the attributive expression stands close to its 
noun. When there are two nouns in the sentence the 
attribute normally refers to the nearest noun. 

3. So, too, the pronoun naturally refers to the noun 
that immediately precedes it. Nearness of position usu- 
ally means a connection in meaning. 

Exercise i. — Study the place of the subjects and ob- 
jects in the story of "The Battle of the Standard." 

Exercise 2. — Study the place of attributive words in 
the sane story. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write from your plan 
or topical outline as made above the developed story. 
Review what you write in the light of the principles of 
narration. 

2. Tell any other simple story of historic anecdote: 
1. King Alfred and the Danes. 2. Canute and the Waves. 
3. The Wreck of the "White Ship." 4. Richard the Lion- 
heart and Blondel. 5. Bruce and the Spider. 

3. Tell of some character famous in modern history: 
1. Mahomet. 2. Galileo. 3. Frederick the Great. 4. 
Luther. 5. William the Silent. 6. Napoleon. 

4. In English history: 1. Alfred the Great. 2. William 
the Conqueror. 3. Thomas a Becket. 4. Wolsey. 5. 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 



205 



Henry V. 6. Mary Queen of Scots. 7. Oliver Cromwell. 
8. Robert Clive. 9. Nelson. 10. Havelock. 11. Gordon. 

5. In American history: 1. George Washington. 2. 
Alexander Hamilton. 3. Lincoln. 4. Lee. 

6. In literature: 1. Chaucer. 2. Caxton. 3. Shake- 
speare. 4. Milton. 5. Burns. 6. Scott. 7. Jane Austen. 
8. Byron. 9. Carlyle. 10. Tennyson. 11. Longfellow. 
12. Edgar Allan Poe. 13. Whittier. 

LESSON LII. 
I. Oral Composition.— Study the story of: 
The Discovery of the Pacific Ocean. 

Vasco Nunez de Balboa was the first European to set foot on the shore of the 
newly discovered ocean. It was on St. Michael's Day, September 29, and he 
named the ocean he discovered Golfo de San Miguel. But Magellan, the first 
to sail on it, called it Mar Pacifico when, on November 27, 1520, he swept into 
its calm waters from the stormy strait which bears his name. 

Vasco Nunez de Balboa, a gentleman adventurer in the 
Spanish colonies of America, rose, by courage and quick 
wit, to the head of the colony of Dariem He heard from 
the Indians of the great ocean beyond the mountains 
behind them, and threatened by his enemies with the loss 
of royal favor, he determined to gain safety and glory by 
discovering the new ocean. 

Balboa had but two hundred men, and dense tropical 
forests, high mountains, and fierce fighting tribes lay 
between him and his goal. Yet he knew that discovery 
would bring him fame, and he had no mind to wait for 
disgrace and death. On September 4, 1513, he sailed 
away from Darien in a fleet consisting of one brigantine 
and nine pirogues. 1 At Coyba he left his ships and half 

1 Canoes hollowed out of the trunks of trees. 



206 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

his men, and started inland. Oppressed by the tropical 
heat, burdened by their heavy armor, opposed by hostile 
tribes, with no routes but the Indian trails, they made 
their way through forty miles of tropical wilderness. At 
last, after twenty-four days, they found themselves at the 
foot of the mountain from which it was said the ocean 
could be seen. 

The day had scarce dawned when Vasco Nunez and his 
followers began to climb the height. It was severe and 
rugged toil for men so wayworn ; but they were filled with 
new ardor at the idea of the triumphant scene that was so 
soon to repay them for all their hardships. About ten 
o'clock in the morning they emerged from the thick 
forests through which they had hitherto struggled, and 
arrived at a lofty and airy region of the mountain. The 
bald summit alone remained to be ascended, and their 
guides pointed to a moderate eminence, from which they 
said the southern sea was visible. 

Upon this Vasco Nunez commanded his followers to 
halt, and not to stir from their place. Then, with a pal- 
pitating heart, he ascended alone the bare mountain top. 
On reaching the summit the long-desired prospect burst 
upon his view. It was as if a new world were unfolded to 
him, separated from all hitherto known by this mighty 
barrier of mountains. Below him extended a vast chaos 
of rock and forest, and green savannas 1 and wandering 
streams, while at a distance the waters of the promised 
ocean glittered in the morning sun. 

At this glorious prospect Vasco Nunez sank upon his 
knees, and poured out thanks to God for being the first 

1 Low, level land covered with ve; eta ion. 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 



207 



European to whom it was given to make that great dis- 
covery. He then called his people to ascend. "Behold, 
my friends/' said he, "that glorious sight which we have 
so much desired. Let us give thanks to God that he has 
granted us this honor and advantage." The Spaniards 
answered by embracing Vasco Nunez, and promising to 
follow him to death. A priest chanted Te Deum Laud- 
amus, 1 the usual anthem of Spanish discoverers. 

Vasco Nunez called upon all present to witness that he 
took possession of that sea, its islands, and surrounding 
lands, in the name of the sovereigns of Castile. He then 
caused a fair and tall tree to be cut down and wrought into 
a cross, which was elevated on the spot whence he had 
first beheld the sea. A mound of stones was likewise piled 
up to serve as a monument, and the names of the sov- 
ereigns of Castile were carved on the neighboring trees. 
The memorable event took place on the 26th of September, 

1513- 

Three days later Balboa and his men reached the mar- 
gin of the sea, and stooping down tasted its waters. 
When they found that, though severed by intervening 
mountains and continents, the waters were salt like the 
seas of the north, they felt assured that they had in- 
deed discovered an ocean, and again returned thanks to 
God. 

— Founded on Washington Irving's "Companions of Columbus" and William 
Henry Johnson's "Pioneer Spaniards in North America." 

I. Discuss the Spaniards' part in the discovery and: 
settlement of America. Draw a map of the Isthmus of; 
Panama. 

1 We praise thee, O God, 



208 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

2. Tell, in a few sentences, how the Europeans discov- 
ered the Pacific. 

3. Tell about Vasco Nunez (noon' yez). State the diffi- 
culties of the exploration. Depict the explorers in the 
midst of their difficulties. Describe Vasco Nunez as he 
first saw the Pacific. Tell about the naming of the new 
ocean. 

4. Point out any words or phrases unfamiliar to you 
and discuss their meaning. 

II. Elements of Style.— Order of Words. (Continued.) 
4. Study the place of modifiers. 

(1) Of short modifiers: 

The expedition sailed away. Balboa started inland. 
About ten o'clock. After most terrible hardships. The day had 
scarce dawned. 

Short modifiers usually follow the verb modified, and 
precede the adjective or adverb or participle modified. 

(2) Long modifying phrases and clauses: 

Balboa sailed away from Darien in a fleet consisting of one 

brigantine and nine pirogues. 
The day had scarce dawned when Vasco and his followers 

began to climb the heights. 
Threatened by his enemies he determined to gain safety and 

glory. 

The order varies in accordance with the need of modu- 
lation and emphasis; but the modifying words, for the 
sake of clearness, are kept near the words modified. 

We usually indicate the relation of the verb and the 
modifiers by keeping them together. When there are 
several modifiers for the same verb, there is need of careful 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 209 

adjustment of the parts of the sentence. Compare the bad 
arrangement of this sentence: 

(1) A fox stole into a vineyard, one day, when the grapes were 

ripe. 

with the good arrangement of this: 

(2) One day, when the grapes were ripe, a fox stole into a 

vineyard. 

Notice that in sentence (1) the modifiers all follow the 
verb, getting farther and farther away from it, and heaping 
up ungracefully one upon the other. Notice that in sen- 
tence (2) these faults are removed. When, therefore, a 
sentence contains several modifiers or attributes, etc., try 
to arrange them in a clear and graceful order. 

A great means, therefore, to express the relations be- 
tween the words of the sentence is the order of the 
words, and the meaning of any sentence depends greatly 
on the place and order in which the words are found. 

Unusual Order of Words. — Words take special places 
at times to secure some special effect — force or modulation. 
See pp. 296, 299. 

Exercise i. — Study the long sentences of "The Dis- 
covery of the Pacific"; try if the phrases and clauses can, 
with advantage, be arranged differently, and so test the 
strength of the order in the text. 

Exercise 2. — Point out any changes you should make 
in the order of words to bring out the meaning intended : 
1. They turned back without speaking to the village. 2. 
Lord Lucan gave the order for the Light Brigade to ad- 
vance upon the guns with reluctance. 3. Caesar was to 
set in a few days out for Parthia. 4. The boy only ate 



2IO COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

four apples. 5. The feelings are unrecorded but may 
easily be imagined with which he watched the scene. 6. 
That author only writes stories of adventure. 7. That 
girl tells only stories of adventure, she never writes them. 
8. 1 would have rather written that poem than take Quebec. 
9. Philadelphia is a city of more than a million inhabitants 
well laid out. 10. To rent — a comfortable house for a 
small family, well furnished except in the upper story, 
n. For sale — an elegant writing-table for a gentleman with 
mahogany legs. 12. Into these bowls Mrs. Squeers poured 
a brown composition, assisted by the hungry servant, 
which was called porridge. 13. He is neither inclined to 
work nor to play. 14. Alarmed by the absence of the 
children, the town bell was rung. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. From your plan or 
outline write the story of the Discovery of the Pacific 
Ocean. 

2. Similarly, tell of one of the following: 1. The Dis- 
covery of America. 2. Of the Hudson. 3. Of the Mis- 
sissippi. 4. Of Lake Erie. 

3. Tell the story of the life of one of the following: 1. 
The Norsemen. 2. Fernando Magellan. 3. Francis Drake, 
or Humphrey Gilbert, or Walter Raleigh. 4. Hernando 
Cortes. 5. Hendrik Hudson. 6. De Soto. 7. Living- 
stone. 8. Stanley. 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 211 

LESSON LIII. 

I. Oral Composition. — Expansion of historical narra- 
tive. Theme: The First Settlement of the English in 
New England. 

In 1620 a small group of religious exiles resolved to 
make their home in the New World. Forty-one families 
embarked at Plymouth on the Mayflower, a vessel of 180 
tons, and landed on the bleak coast of Massachusetts at 
a spot they named Plymouth Rock. They struggled 
against climate, sickness, famine, Indians, and their faith 
and industry ultimately prevailed. They led and made 
the way for the settlement of New England, and their 
memory is honored under the name of the Pilgrim Fathers. 

I. What drove the Pilgrims into exile? What were 
their hopes in turning for a home to the New World? 
Depict the scene of their landing — (1) ocean and coast; 
(2) storm of ocean and forest. Tell the feelings of the 
exiles as they viewed the scene. What different people 
were there among the Pilgrims ? What was their common 
purpose? What was there great and heroic in their en- 
terprise ? 

Mrs. Hemans's " Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers" may, with advantage, be 
read and discussed. 

II. Elements of Style. — Choice of Words. — Nouns 
Concrete and Abstract. Nouns may represent individ- 
ual things — wave, coast, woods, sky; England, God. 
Such nouns are called concrete nouns. But we may 
find something common to several of these objects, or 
something common to objects very much unlike. We 
can speak of the strength of the wave or of America, the 



212 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

distance of the coast or of home, the fame of the Pilgrim 
Fathers or of Greece, the freedom of the eagle or of the 
exile. Such nouns represent some idea of quality, rela- 
tion, condition, that is thought of for itself, apart from 
(abstracted from) the individual object. They are called 
abstract nouns. 

Exercise i. — Point out the kinds of nouns — concrete 
or abstract — in the following. Tell why you so class each : 
i. Sweet are the uses of adversity. 2. June reared the 
bunch of flowers you carry. 3. The quality of mercy is 
not strained. It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven. 
4. Away went Gilpin, and away went the post-boy at his 
heels. 5. Yon sun that sets upon the sea, we follow in his 
flight. 6. Down went the Royal George with all her crew 
complete. 7. Pride that dines on vanity sups on content. 
8. Our old homestead (the house was very old for a new 
country, having been built about the time that the Prince 
of Orange drove out James the Second) nestled under a 
long range of hills which stretched far off to the west. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write about the Land- 
ing of the Pilgrims. 

Develop into a paragraph each of the following: (i) The hopes and fears and 
resolutions of the Pilgrim Fathers at starting; and (2) the welcome they found 
in the wilderness at landing; (3) their struggle for existence; (4) their final 
success and influence and renown. Review what you write with regard to the 
principles of narration. 

2. Write a similar theme on one of the following: i. 
The First Settlement of the English in Virginia. 2. Of the 
Dutch on Manhattan Island. 3. The Founding of New 
Orleans. 

3. Tell of the first settlement of the place in which you 
live. 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 213 

LESSON LIV. 

I. Oral Composition. — Development exercises in his- 
torical narrative. Expand the following theme: 

The Fall of the Bastile. 
The Bastile was a fortress flanking the gate of Saint 
Antoine in Paris. It was begun in 1369 as part of the 
fortification of the city, but was employed from very 
early times for the custody of state prisoners, and ulti- 
mately became more of a prison than a fortress. To the 
people of Paris it stood for the despotic power of the 
King. It was attacked by them at the beginning of the 
French Revolution, and after a vigorous resistance, was 
taken and razed to the ground, July 14, 1789. 

II. Elements of Style.— Choice of Words. — Con- 
creteness in Writing. Study the difference between 
concrete and abstract nouns. In general, writers prefer 
concrete nouns to abstract, because the concrete noun sig- 
nifies a definite, familiar image. Compare the force in 
the two ways of saying: 

Time passes. The clock ticks on, hour after hour. 

The people wild with excitement crowd about the Bastile. A 

fire-maelstrom lashes round the Bastile. 
I will not give you any compensation (a shilling). 
He was a man of truth (true as steel). 

For the sake of the vivid image we seek to strengthen, by 
using concrete nouns, ideas that would remain vague if 
expressed by abstract nouns or adjectives or adverbs. 

Blood flows (i. e., men were wounded). 

They dashed on, keen and swift as blood-hounds. 

His cheek was like the berry. He flew like an arrow. 



214 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Exercise i . — Point out the advantage of style got by 
using concreteness in each of the following : i . He got into 
difficulties as children fall into puddles. 2. Kind hearts 
are more than coronets. 3. Care killed the cat. 4. Too 
many cooks spoil the broth. 5. The harbor was crowded 
with masts. 6. True freedom is to share all the chains our 
brothers wear. 7. He that can rule his tongue shall live 
without strife. 8. The ship has sprung a leak. All hands 
to the pumps. 9. Penny -wise and pound foolish. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Tell the story of the 
Fall of the Bastile. 

2. Tell the story of some incident of historic bravery in 
American history, such as: 1. The Boston Tea* Party. 
2. Washington Crossing the Delaware. 3. The Capture 
of Stony Point. 4. Valley Forge. 5. The Fight of the 
Constitution and the Guerriere. 6. The Fight of the 
Monitor and the Merrimac. 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 



215 



LESSON LV. 




"Nathan Holer Statue by F. MacMonnies. 
In City Hall Square, New York. Pho- 
tograph. 

I. Oral Composition.— Study the story of: 
Nathan Hale. 

In 1776 Washington was endeavoring to capture the 
city of New York from the British. He needed to know 
the plans of his opponent, General Howe, and to have 
maps of the shores of the Hudson and the Sound. Among 
the local troops under his command was a small body of 
irregulars known as Knowlton's Rangers. 

Washington asked Knowlton to call his officers together, 
to tell them of the desperate state of affairs, and to ask for 
a volunteer. A common spy could not do the work, for it 



2l6 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

required a man who understood military plans and could 
make drawings. No one responded to the first appeal. 
Men who had no fear of death recoiled from the dishonor 
of a spy's fate. As Knowlton was urging them further, 
Nathan Hale entered and at once undertook the task. Any 
service done for one's country, he said, was noble. 

Hale was a Connecticut man, born in Coventry, 1755, 
and educated at Yale. He was a man of fine physique, 
six feet high, broad-chested, and athletic. On the break- 
ing out of war he had been given a commission, and was 
one of the ablest officers of Knowlton's Rangers. 

Hale received his last instructions from Washington, 
and, disguised as a school-master, he crossed from Harlem 
Heights to Long Island. For two weeks he was within the 
enemy's lines and made plans of all their defences. His 
work done, he was staying at a small tavern on the shore 
waiting for the boat which would take him to safety. In 
his shoes were the drawings with full notes in Latin. But 
a Tory, a man said to be of his own kin, recognized him. 
The man went out, and a few minutes later word was 
brought Hale that a boat was approaching. He dashed 
out to meet it, and shouted greetings to his friends, as he 
thought — but found muskets levelled at his breast. 

He was carried to the head-quarters of General Howe, 
who was amazed, as the memoranda were spread out 
before him, at the extent and audacity of the prisoner's 
work. Hale made no secret of his name, rank, and 
errand, and there was no choice for Howe but to sentence 
him to the spy's fate, to be hanged. 

Early next morning Hale stood on a ladder leaned 
against a tree. A rope was about his neck; the end of the 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 217 

rope was about to be thrown over a limb of the tree. The 
Provost Marshal asked him for a confession. Hale an- 
swered: "I only regret that I have but one life to give for 
my country." " Swing the rebel off!" was the command, 
and in a moment all was over. 

The Provost Marshal had been unnecessarily cruel to the 
prisoner, and had destroyed the letters Hale had written to 
his friends, so that, as he said, "The rebels should never 
know they had a man who could die with such firmness." 
But Hale's dying speech was heard by a generous young 
British officer, Captain Montressor. Sent with flag of truce 
to announce the execution, Montressor repeated the words to 
Captain Hull of the American forces. Such words can never 
die, and the memory of such men as Hale is immortal. 

There is a poem on Nathan Hale, written by F. M. Finch. The statue in 
City Hall Park, New York, is by Frederick MacMonnies, and was unveiled 
November 25, 1893. 

1 . Draw up a general plan of Manhattan Island and its 
surroundings. Place the scenes of the story. 

2. Tell how Washington w r as perplexed. How could 
a spy help him? What is disgraceful in a spy's work? 
Why did Hale volunteer? Depict the scene of his capt- 
ure — of his death. What redeemed the dishonor of his 
death? Repeat, from memory, his dying w T ords. 

3. Discuss the words and phrases: 1. opponent. 2. ir- 
regulars. 3. rangers. 4. state of affairs. 5. appeal. 
6. physique. 7. commission. 8. the enemy's lines. 9. 
taken to safety. 10. head-quarters, n. flag of truce. 

4. Why are the details of Hale's early life not put first 
in the story? What is strikingly interesting in the ele- 
ments of his story ? Point out the direct quotations in the 
storv and show their value. 



2l8 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

5. Draw up a topical outline of the story, giving a title 
to each paragraph of the story. 

II. Elements of Style. — Concord or Agreement. 

(Continued from Lesson L, p. 200.) When a pronoun takes 
the place of a noun, the pronoun assumes the person and 
number of the noun, and the verb agrees with it. 

The man who has no fear of death shuns a spy's doom. 
Men who have no fear of death shun a spy's doom. 
I that speak to thee am he. 
He who speaks to you is your brother. 

When the subject is compound and connected with 
either . . . or, neither . . . nor, the verb usually agrees with 
the subject next it. 

Neither the little gray rabbit nor the little gray fox is found in 
my locality. 

The pronoun you is used both as singular and plural, 
but it takes a plural verb. We say even of one person : 

Were you (not was you) there ? You were there. 

Note. — Collective nouns — such as crowd, army, congregation, number — 
take the verb in the singular or in the plural ; the former if the collective idea 
is uppermost, the latter if the individuals making up the body are thought of. 

Concord is found also with certain adjectives that 
change for number. We must make such adjectives 
agree with their nouns. 

This industry — these industries. That woman — those women. 
Sugar-maples are that kind of tree. This sort of pens. 

Note. — Be careful also to say : that sort of man, this kind of tree, etc. — not 
that sort of a man. 

Exercise i. — Correct the following. Show the reason 
for the correction, whether it is for agreement or govern- 
ment: 1. Neither he nor his father were there. 2. No 



HISTORICAL NARRATIVE. 



219 



nation but ourselves have equally succeeded in both forms 
of the highest poetry — epic arid tragic. 3. Neither man 
nor beast do their best work when starving. 4. One should 
always watch their purse when they are travelling. 5. If 
it don't rain we shall have a picnic to-day. 6. When a 
thing or a man are wanted, they generally appear. 7. 
Each of the doors are painted a dark green. 8. Fear or 
exhaustion have paralyzed him. 9. The valuable library, 
together with the mahogany dining-room set, were left to 
the oldest daughter. 10. The wealth of the many make a 
very great show in statistics. 11. Seated on an upright 
tombstone, close to him, was a strange unearthly figure 
whom Gabriel felt at once was no being of this world. 
12. Everybody had been busy and had been useful in their 
way. 13. Thou Nature, partial Nature, I arraign. 14. 
Three colonies was a great loss for the nation to sustain. 
15. The congregation was free to change their mind. 16. 
Everybody knows their own business best. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write the story of 
Nathan Hale. If you have visited the scene of his death, 
describe it and recall the story. Or, describe his monu- 
ment and tell his story. 

2. Tell, briefly, the story of any other heroic life in 
American history. 

3. Tell, briefly, the story of the life and explorations of 
one of the following: 1. Sebastian Cabot. 2. Jacques 
Cartier. 3. Samuel de Champlain. 4. Count Frontenac. 

4. Tell the story of the life and work of some one emi- 
inent in American industry: 1. John Jacob Astor. 2. 
Robert Fulton. 3. Elias Howe. 4. Thomas Edison. 



CHAPTER IX.— DESCRIPTION. 
LESSON LVI. 
I. Oral Composition. — The Settlement of the Frontier. 




"The Home of the Pioneer." Photograph by E. J. Rowley. 



While I was meditating on the great process of Nature, 
which employs thousands of years in rendering the earth 
habitable, a new spectacle excited my curiosity; this was 
the work of a single man who, in the space of a year, had 
cut down several acres of forest and had built himself a 



DESCRIPTION. 221 

house in the middle of a pretty extensive territory he had 
already cleared. 

Any man who is able to procure a capital of twenty-five 
pounds sterling, and who has strength and inclination to 
work, may go into the woods and purchase a portion of 
land. There he leads a cow, some pigs, and a couple of 
horses of no great value. To these provisions he adds a 
store of flour and cider. 

He begins by felling all the smaller trees. These and 
the smaller branches of the large ones he makes use of as 
fences to the first field he wishes to clear. He next boldly 
attacks those immense oaks, or pines, which one would 
take for the ancient lords of the territory he is usurping. 
He strips them of their bark or lays them open all around 
with his axe. These trees, mortally wounded, are the 
next spring robbed of their honors; their leaves no longer 
spring, their branches fall, and the trunk becomes a hideous 
skeleton. This trunk still seems to brave the efforts of 
the new colonist, but where there are the smallest chinks 
or crevices he surrounds it with fire, and the flames con- 
sume what the steel was not able to destroy. 

When the ground is cleared the air and the sun begin to 
work upon that earth formed of decayed vegetation, the 
grass grows rapidly; there is pasturage for the cattle the 
very first year; and a piece of ground tilled yields the 
enormous increase of twenty or thirty fold. 

At the end of two years the planter has enough to live 
on and even send some articles to market. At the end 
of four or five years he has completed the payment of his 
land, and finds himself a comfortable farmer. Then his 
dwelling, which at first was no better than a large hut 



222 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

formed by a square of the trunks of trees placed one upon 
another, with the intervals filled by mud, changes into a 
handsome wooden house. 

Such are the means by which North America, which a 
hundred years ago was nothing but a vast forest, is peopled 
with millions of inhabitants. 

— Adapted from "Travels in North America in the Years 1780, 1781, and 1782." 
By the Marquis Francois Jean de Chastellux. 

1 . Give other suitable titles to the passage. What part 
of the description is told in the first paragraph ? What in 
the second ? the third ? the fourth ? the fifth ? the sixth ? 

2. Imagine you were the settler. Tell how you would 
go about making a home in the wilderness. 

3. Point out instances of concreteness in the description 
— the choice of one typical case of settlement to show the 
manner of it all — and the concrete details that are used in 
describing the settler's work. 

4. Draw up a topical outline on the theme. 

II. Elements of Style.— Choice of Words.— Simple 
Words. Some people think that to write well they must 
use long and difficult words. They are mistaken. The 
finest passages in the Bible and Burns and Wordsworth 
are written in words familiar to any child. Do not seek 
after pretentious words. Prefer the short familiar word 
to the long learned one. 

Exercise i. — Study the following words in " The Settle- 
ment of the Frontier" and see what determines the choice 
made by the author : i . The work of a single man — person 
— individual, 2. He had built himself a house — edifice — 
residence — domicile. 3. There he leads — conducts a cow. 



DESCRIPTION. 



223 



4. To these provisions he adds — augments with. 5. He 
begins — commences. 6. He makes use of as jences — en- 
closures. 7. At the end — completion of two years. 8. The 
planter has enough to live on — subsist on. 

But the longer words have a use, sometimes, to express 
a special meaning. The choice of words depends greatly 
on the sense of the passage. 

Exercise 2. — Compare, as to choice of words: 1. While 
I was meditating — thinking. 2. The new earth is formed 
of vegetation — leaves. 3. The great — enormous increase. 
4. His dwelling — house — home changes into a handsome 
house. 5. Millions of inhabitants — people — citizens. 

Exercise 3. — Tell which word in the italicized groups 
it is better to use: 1. A lazy — indolent sheep thinks its wool 
heavy — ponderous. 2. John has a birthday party — celebra- 
tion next week. 3. Our friends have located — settled in 
town. 4. He has hard — difficult work — employment who 
has nothing to do. 5. He invited us to a treat — celebration 
at his home — house — mansion — residence. 6. The Lord 
Mayor's banquet — dinner was the talk — conversation of 
the town. 7. The wren is saucy — impertinent — impudent 
and he has a tongue in his head that can surpass — outwag 
any other tongue known to me. 8. At last — eventually he 
said to them bravely — courageously, "I wish — desire — 
prefer now to go back — return to mother." 9. There sits a 
big — great — monstrous cat upon a window-sill, a very fat — 
plump — corpulent cat, gazing at — contemplating this pass- 
ing — transitory w T orld. 10. It was a storm indeed. It 
seemed as if the hills were giants, and were throwing big— 
— great — monstrous handfuls of snow at one another in 
.their grand — huge — enormous sport. 



224 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

III. Written Composition. — i. Tell the story of the 
Pioneers in any State of the Union. 

2. If you have heard your grandfather or any one else 
tell of his experience in the early days of the settlement of 
the State you live in, write out the story told you. 

3. Tell how the Log-hut of the Pioneers was built. 

4. Breaking the Prairie: The First Experiences of a 
Settler in one of the Prairie States. 

5. Tell, by letter, of a visit to a ranch in the West. 

6. Tell the story of Daniel Boone. 

7. Describe the Wilderness Road. (See Theodore 
Roosevelt's " Winning of the West.") 

LESSON LVII. 

I. Oral Composition.— The development of a theme :— 
A Maple-Sugar Camp. 

II. Elements of Style.— Verb Forms. The verb 
varies to tell the time or completedness of the action or 
state it asserts. 

My thoughts tur n, or are turning {present) . My thoughts 
turned {past). My thoughts have turned {present perfect). 

I begin {present). I began {past). I have begun {present per- 
fect). 

These forms of the verb to express time are termed 
tenses of the verb. Verbs make their tenses according 
to two main forms of conjugation. 

1 . There is the strong conjugation. Some verbs make 
their parts by internal change of vowel. Such verbs are 
strong verbs. 







DESCRIPTION. 




225 


Present. 


Past. 


Per}. Part. 


Present. 


Past. 


Per}. Part. 


begin 


began 


begun 


break 


broke 


broken 


write 


wrote 


written 


give 


gave 


given 


sing 


sang 


sung 


blow 


blew 


blown 


see 


saw 


seen 


lie 


lay 


lain 



Note i. — The perfect participle sometimes shows the old inflection -en. 
Note 2. — "To go" forms its past tense from "to wend" — go, went, gone. 

2. There is the weak conjugation. Some verbs make 
their parts by the addition of an inflection -{e)d. Such 
verbs are weak verbs. 

Present. Past. Per}. Part. Present. Past. Per}. Part. 

float floated floated finish finished finished 

love loved loved ask asked asked 

lay laid laid 

Note i. — This -ed may be modified in pronunciation and writing to / — pass, 
past, past. 

Note 2. — Some weak verbs end in -d, which becomes t; some which end in-t 
remain unchanged: 

send, sent, sent. cut, cut, cut. shut, shut, shut. 

Note 3. — The addition of -ed brings about, in some weak verbs, a slight change 
in the vowel: 

flee, fled, fled. tell, told, told. 

This does not change the class they belong to. 

Exercise i. — Discuss the forms of the verbs in "The 
Settlement of the Frontier " as strong or weak. 

III. Written Composition. — i. Maple-Sugar Making. 

2. Tell how the Indians built their canoes. Or, re- 
produce the story of Hiawatha's Canoe. (See Long- 
fellow's " Hiawatha" — Hiawatha 1 s Sailing.) 

3. Tell how the Indians made their weapons, or their 
clothes. 

4. Tell the story of an Indian raid. 

5. Describe a visit to an Indian reservation. 



226 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

LESSON LVIII. 

I. Oral Composition.— Logging in the Backwoods. 

In the spring, when the ice begins to melt and swell the 
streams, the logs must be floated down to the mill, or to 
the "boom" on the freshets. Now the "drive' begins, 
and the trip down the stream is always full of incident, 
danger, and excitement. A huge mass of logs and ice is 
sent hurrying down the river and the drivers follow it, 
directing the floating mass and keeping it in hand. Armed 
with long pike poles, having a straight or curved prong 
at the end, the drivers try to keep the logs in motion by 
pushing and prodding. If one log should happen to catch 
on a projection of rock, where the river narrows, it is 
likely to cause a "jam," and that is what the men fear 
most. 

Over there the whole drive of logs comes upon a gorge. 
Every moment adds to the difficulty and danger, the heavy 
mass becomes firm and rigid, and as thousands of logs 
from "up-stream" continue to float down, there seems 
no likelihood of breaking the jam right away. It is a 
lively scene; the bold fellows jumping, plunging, wading, 
slipping, leaping from log to log, crossing chasms in the 
swaying mass. Of course the objective point is to free 
the imprisoned log or logs that hold the others back. 

One driver, more active and daring than his fellows, 
reaches the "king-pin" of the jam; he succeeds in loosen- 
ing its hold on the rocks, and, turning, flies for his life. 
What a sound! What a sight! The jam breaks with a 



DESCRIPTION. 227 

noise like thunder and starts with a jump. There is an 
upheaval and an uplifting of logs as if thrown by an 
earthquake. What was once seemingly a solid mass is 
now alive and writhing. Huge sticks of timber are 
thrown into the air as if by giants at play; they roll over 
and over, turning and squirming, grinding and crashing. 
The roar of the sweeping flood and the pounding of logs 
are deafening. 

The men w T ho do the driving take their lives in their 
hands almost every hour of the day, and sometimes a 
misstep on a slippery log throws some poor fellow into a 
gap, and he disappears into the river before the eyes of 
his comrades, willing, but helpless, to rescue him. They 
are as bold and fearless a lot of fellows as one could find 
the world over : their work calls for the agility of a ballet- 
dancer and the nerve of a tight-rope walker. But the 
exposure and hardship of the life are enough to break 
down the hardiest constitution, and it is not surprising to 
hear that the men are not, as a rule, long-lived. 

— From "The English Illustrated Magazine," by permission of the publishers, 
The Central Publishing Co., London, England. 

Duncan Campbell Scott's "At the Cedars" may, with advantage, be read to 
the class. See " Songs of the Great Dominion." 

1. What is the topic of the whole passage? What is 
the topic sentence of the whole passage? Where is it? 
Why is it there ? What is the topic sentence of the second 
paragraph ? of the third ? of the fourth ? What is the 
sequence in which the description is told? Follow it 
through. What is the climax of interest in the story ? 

2. See, vividly, each of the following — visualize each — 
and tell what (1) a saw-log is, (2) a "boom," (3) a freshet, 



228 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



(4) a "drive," (5) a "jam/' (6) a gorge, (7) breaking the 
"jam." 

II. Elements of Style.— Verb Forms. (Continued.) 
Errors in the use of verb forms arise : 

(1) By confusing the class to which the verb belongs. 
Verbs sometimes wrongly classed and conjugated are : 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect. 


I know. 


I knew. 


I have known (not knowed) 


I dive. 


I dived (not dove) 


I have dived (not dove). 


Hie. 


I lay (not laid). 


I have lain (not laid). 


I beat. 


I beat (not bet). 


I have beat (en). 


It swells. 


it swelled (not swoll). 


it has swelled (or is swollen) 



Present. 


Past. 


I see. 


I saw (not seen). 


I go. 


I went. 


I come. 


I came (not come). 


I drink. 


I drank. 


I sit. 


I sat (not set). 


I sing. 


I sang. 



(2) By confusing the parts of the conjugation. Parts of 
verbs so confused are: 

Perfect. 
I have seen (not saw). 
I have gone (not went). 
I have come (not came). 
I have drunk (not drank). 
I have sat (not set). 
I have sung (not sang). 

If pupils make errors such as these, there should be oral class drill on short 
sentences containing the right form. 

Exercise i. — Study the tense forms of the verb in 
" Logging in the Backwoods. " 

Exercise 2. — Say which form you prefer in each of the 
following, and why you prefer it: 1. He has went — gone 
on a long journey. 2. The boys come — came home for 
Christmas. 3. I seen — saw the first locomotive which 
came into this town. 4. She had sung — sang twice and 
bowed gracefully to the audience. 5. The sailor had 



DESCRIPTION. 229 

drank — drunk more than was good for him. 6. Let us sit 
— set down on the grass and eat our lunch. 7. He has set 
— sat steadily at his desk all day, and has not come — came 
home yet. 8. I found the rake laying — lying on the 
ground. 9. The wintry sun lay — laid late abed. 10. We 
built a fire and lay — laid down our loads, ate our supper, 
and lay — laid down to sleep. 11. Few people are living 
there who have not seen — saw better days. 12. " There, 
now," said Mrs. Gamp, "I knowed — knew you'd forget 
the cucumber." 13. He has not sat — set in the seat of the 
scornful. 14. He has never knew — known what it is to 
have a mother. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Tell the story of 
Logging in the Backwoods. 

Study this plan: Topic sentence. — 1. The cutting of the 
logs and hauling to the stream; their destination; the 
spring; the swelling of the streams; the " drive" begins; 
the work of the " drivers." 

Topic sentence. — The great difficulty — the "jam"; how 
it comes about; what must be done to break it; how it is 
done; the dangers; the result. 

Topic sentence. — The kind of men lumbermen must be; 
the life they lead; its effect on them. 

2. Tell, by means of a letter to a friend, of a visit to 
one of the following: 1. A Lumberman's Camp. 2. A 

Fishing Village. 3. A Coal-Mine at ; or Life in 

the Mines. 

4. The Oil (or Gas, or Salt) Wells at . 5. The 

Foundry at . 6. The Blast Furnace at . 7. 

The Ship-Yard at . 8. The Brick-Yard at . 



230 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

3. Describe the Discovery of Silver or Gold in any part 
of the Union. 

LESSON LIX. 
I. Oral Composition. — A Saw-Mill. 

Of all my memories of country life, what I remember 
best in my boyhood is the saw-mill in our little village. 
The farm I lived on was a mile or two away — it seemed a 
great distance to a boy of seven or eight — but almost every 
summer day I would try to get down to the village and 
its mill. 

What a fascination the old mill had for us boys ! Within 
it everything was in motion — moving so mysteriously that 
the very logs and boards seemed alive. The great wet 
shining logs kept mounting up into the mill on the " jack"; 
they seemed like water monsters rising from out their 
home in the mill-pond. We could see the men look at 
each log, as curious as we; spring here and there, now 
seizing their cant-hooks to turn the huge trunk; now 
driving deep the "dogs" that it might hold firm to its 
carriage. Again and again there was the sharp whir of the 
saw as it sang its way through the log. The forest monster 
seemed to melt into boards before our eyes. And once 
cut, the boards moved off this way and that — some to be 
mere "slabs," or at most laths and shingles, others to be 
trimmed, and sorted, and piled in the yard, which we 
could see below through the wide openings of the mill. 

Down in the yard we walked among the tall yellow 
piles of boards as if we were in streets of city houses. We 
passed the tracks of little hand-cars — and rode on the cars, 



DESCRIPTION. 231 

if we got the chance — and the curved s ding of the railroad 
where two or three cars were loading. Everywhere our 
feet trod upon the yielding sawdust and broken bark. 
Everywhere was the fragrance of pine — we smelled it out 
of the fresh sawdust and fresh-cut timber — out of the 
boom of logs in the mill-pond waiting their turn; the very 
sunshine over all — sunshine out of the clear blue of the 
summer sky — baked the boards until they smelt as if fresh 
from the oven. Then, too, the sun shone out over the mill- 
pond until the water was "as warm as toast," and six or 
seven "swims" a day was a small "coming in" for any 
small boy. 

Perhaps the mill-pond was the best of all, for it gave us 
the endless fascination of water. It stretched out, dotted 
here and there with stumps, between low hills. At the 
farthest end there was the creek that fed its waters, and at 
the village end the mill and mill-dam. The dam itself 
was a ceaseless wonder — the depth of water near it, the 
long, thin wave of water bending ceaselessly over it, and 
breaking in a little cascade of foam — the little spurting 
silvery streams jetting out of hole and crevice, all falling 
down past slippery, green-grown timbers to the stony 
creek below. The old mill-pond meant fishing, and it 
would yield to the average boy's plain hickory pole and 
earthworms a fair string of perch and sun-fish. Perhaps 
I should not say string, for it was a small branch, trimmed, 
except for one twig at the bottom, that carried our proud 
load homeward. The mill-pond, above all, meant swim 
ming. And swimming in the mill-pond was fraught, to 
our boyish imaginations, with magnificent dangers. There 
was the famous "hole" that had no bottom; there were 



232 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

the parts shunned for the mysterious dangers of " weeds"; 
there were the depths and current by the mill-dam, ven- 
tured on only by the hazardous ; there was the tremendous 
flume, with its water racing off into the vague darkness of 
the mill, which had a touch of terror and mystery that kept 
away even the stoutest. 

I was only eight years of age when I left the little village 
forever. They say the mill is no more and the village 
almost abandoned. But the memories of that village 
life never vanish. At any time, anywhere, I have only to 
close my eyes and I see a small boy hurrying down from 
the farm to the village — to the mill — to the mill-pond. 
And I know no happier memory than that I was once 
that happy boy. 

II. Principles of Description. — Description is the 
art of presenting to the mind the details or traits of a scene 
or person so as to present a clear and vivid picture of the 
thing described. It shows these details not in sequence 
of time, like narration, but in sequence of space. 

Description is founded in part on observation. To de- 
scribe well, our senses, especially the eye, must be alert 
for the details of form, color, light, sound, smell, motion. 
These details must be remembered. Then the mind must 
be able to see the scene again in memory — to visualize it, 
Then it must be able to analyze the scene into its parts. 
Thus we are prepared to w r rite a description. 

The descriptive composition falls into the usual parts — 
Introduction, Body, and Ending. The details must be 
presented according to a plan that will give coherence to 
the details. Usually the scene is given as it was actually 



DESCRIPTION. 233 

displayed to the eyes of the writer as he viewed it, standing 
at one point (the fixed point of view), or as he moved 
about (the traveller's point of view). There is need for 
full detail so that there may be the necessary develop- 
ment of the scene, yet whatever is put in should have 
significance. Catch the salient characteristic of each 
part of the description, and put that in. But we should 
be prosy and prolix and tiresome to put in a great deal of 
detail that is commonplace. If possible, the description 
should have some one dominant aspect, tone, or mood like 
the scene itself — it should have unity of theme and tone. 

Exercise i. — What is the preceding passage about? 
What parts does it fall into? Give a title to each part. 
Has each paragraph a good topic sentence? 

Exercise 2. — Point out the plan in which the details 
are presented. Does the description show coherence? 
Point out, in each separate detail of the description, what 
is the salient characteristic selected out of the possible 
details of the scene. Does the description show selection of 
detail? Does the description show a well-rounded plan 
of treatment ? Why is it a description rather than a nar- 
ration ? 

III. Written Composition.— 1. Tell the story of what 
you remember of any old mill — saw-mill or flour-mill. 

2. Give a similar description, from your memories and 
impressions, of a railroad. 

3. Describe, using the detail you remember, any creek 
or river or lake you have come to know well. 

4. Describe a farm or a city from your memories of 
visiting one or the other. 



234 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

LESSON LX. 

1. Oral Composition. — The Scenes of Earlier Days. 
Reading and study of Longfellow's "My Lost Youth." 

i. Tell, stanza by stanza, what the writer tells about 
his boyhood. 

2. Show how the principles of description will apply to 
the poem — (i) the coherence of the details; (2) the fulness 
of the description; (3) the selection of significant details; 
(4) the well-rounded plan; and (5) dominant idea and tone 
of it all. 

3. Draw up a topical outline of the description. 

II. Elements of Style. — Choice of Words.— Purity. 

The language spoken by different classes of people varies 
as much as the people themselves; but in language, as in 
life, there is a striving after a common standard of excel- 
lence. The accepted standard of our language is the 
language used by most educated speakers of our own time. 
Language of this standard is said to be pure. From this 
point of view, people who use (1) dialect words, or provin- 
cialisms, or old words found only in books, do not use 
pure English. People who use (2) slang or vulgar clipped 
words (ad, gent, exam, etc.) do not use pure English. 
Those who (3) misuse English words or make errors of 
grammar do not use pure English. And speakers of pure 
English (4) prefer the simple word to the pretentious word, 
and (5) use foreign words v^fy little, avoiding them alto- 
gether if they suggest any parade of learning or of social 
tone. The most available form in which pure English is 
found is in good modern authors, and reading and mem- 



DESCRIPTION. 235 

orizing good modern literature will gradually give the pupil 
a standard of good English and purify his own speech. 

Exercise 1.— Examine the following sentences, see 
where each is faulty, and correct the fault: 1. I want to 
speak again to a party I met last night. 2. The express 
is liable to be late if the snow keeps falling. 3. Full 
sleeves are quite the mode this year. 4. Do not trust a 
verbal message when the matter is important. 5. We are 
thinking of locating in the town if we can find a suitable 
house. 6. Those two boys didn't use to be away from 
school so often. 7. The druggist has a new stock of dry 
plates. I got some off of him. 8. Such conduct, my dear, 
is not found in people of haul ton. 9. The show at the 
Opera House was awfully nice. 10. He hadn't ought to 
charge so much for what he did. 11. In her best clothes 
she presented a very genteel appearance. 12. When he 
found he was late he just skedaddled for the train. 13. 
The writing of ads ranks among regular occupations now- 
adays. 14. The rule is more honored in the breach than 
in the observation. 15. I am so afraid that I'll flunk in 
my exams that I plug away at the books every evening. 

Exercise 2.— Compare the difference in the style of the 
language in the preceding exercise and that in Long- 
fellow's "My Lost Youth." 

III. Written Composition.— 1. Describe Longfellow's 
recollection of the scenes of his boyhood. 

2. Following the plan of Longfellow's description, de- 
scribe your own scenes of childhood. 

3. Describe your recollections of Santa Claus. 

4. Describe the objects that gave you most pleasure in 
childhood. 



23 6 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



5. i. My First Knife. 2. My First Pets. 3. My Last 
Doll. 4. My Snow Man. 5. My First Skates. 

6. Choose any similar topic that interests you and write 
on your chosen subject. 



LESSON LXL 
I. Oral Composition.— The Blacksmith-shop. 




11 Shoeing the Bay Mare." Painting by Landseer. 

I. Study this picture. Note the details of the scene — 
shop, blacksmith, tools, materials, customer's horse, oper- 
ations. Note the colors and sounds of the scene. Think 
of the value of the blacksmith's work to the people he 



DESCRIPTION. 237 

lives among. Then think out a plan, and draw up a 
topical outline of a description of a blacksmith- shop. 

2. Read Longfellow's poem, "The Village Blacksmith." 

3. Draw up a topical outline of a visit to a blacksmith's. 

II. Elements of Style. — Choice of Words. — Preci- 
sion. Words must be used with their precise meanings. 
1 . Often several words have a more or less common mean- 
ing — hence are called synonyms — but they have shades 
of differences that must be observed. Study the differ- 
ences, for example, between: 

admiration, respect, love, esteem, old, ancient, antique, anti- 
veneration quated, aged, venerable 
alert, brisk, nimble, quick, active persuade, convince, influence, 
allude, mention induce 
annual, perennial risk, danger, peril, hazard 
balance, rest, remainder seeming, apparent, evident, ob- 
between, among vious 

blame, censure, condemnation severe, harsh, unyielding, stern 

centre, middle unhappiness, sorrow, grief, an- 

character, reputation guish, misery 

gale, storm, tempest, hurricane, workman, artisan, smith, me- 

blizzard chanic, machinist, operator, 

know, understand, perceive employee 

2. Often words have a similarity in sound, but differ 
greatly in use and meaning: lie, lay; sit, set; rise, raise; 
effect, affect. 

Exercise i. — (Oral.) Exercise on the synonyms given 
above. 

Exercise 2. — (Oral.) Study groups of words of similar 
meaning suggested by the class. Compose appropriate 
sentences illustrating their uses. 



238 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. On the basis of the 
study of the Blacksmith-shop, describe one. 

If you have any personal associations, add them. 

2. Make a similar study of a carpenter's shop. 

3. Make a similar study of the school-room. 

Take a significant moment for your picture — suppose the school at work — 
silent — what do you see that is characteristic? — heads bent forward, intent 
looks, tense faces, etc., pens or pencils moving, pages turning; note differences 
in scholars — the earnest and the lazy, etc. What do you hear? — scratching of 
pens, rustling of pages, whispering, noises without in the yard, on the street, 
etc. What general feeling do you get from watching such a scene? Add, if 
you wish, the immediate contrast of recess or dismissal. 



LESSON LXII. 

I. Oral Composition. — The Books of My Boyhood. 

At last I entered upon the highest form of the dame's 
school. All the while the process of acquiring learning 
had been a dark one, when at once my mind awoke to the 
meaning of the most delightful of all narratives — the story 
of Joseph. Was there ever such a discovery made before ? 
I actually found out for myself that the art of reading is 
the art of finding stories in books; and from that moment 
reading became one of the most delightful of my amuse- 
ments. 

I began by getting into a corner on the dismissal of the 
school, and there conning over to myself the new-found 
story of Joseph; nor did one perusal serve; the other 
Scripture stories followed — in especial, the story of Sam- 
son and the Philistines, of David and Goliath, of the 
prophets Elijah and Elisha; and after these came the 
New Testament stories and parables. 

Assisted by my uncles, too, I began to collect a library 






DESCRIPTION. 239 

in a box of birch-bark about nine inches square, which I 
found quite large enough to contain a great many im- 
mortal works — "Jack, the Giant-Killer," and "Jack and 
the Bean-Stalk," and the "Yellow Dwarf," and "Blue- 
beard," and "Sindbad the Sailor," and "Beauty and the 
Beast," and "Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp," with 
several others of resembling character. 

Old Homer wrote admirably for little folks, especially 
in the Odyssey; a copy of which, in the only true transla- 
tion extant — for, judging from its surpassing interest and 
the wrath of critics such I hold that of Pope to be — I 
found in the house of a neighbor. Next came the Iliad. 
With what power, and at how early an age, true genius 
impresses ! I saw, even at this immature period, that no 
other writer could cast a javelin with half the force of 
Homer. The missiles went whizzing athwart his pages; 
and I could see the momentary gleam of the steel ere it 
buried itself deep in brass and bull-hide. 

I next succeeded in discovering for myself a child's book, 
of not less interest than even the Iliad, which might, I was 
told, be read on Sabbaths, in a magnificent old edition of 
"The Pilgrim's Progress," printed on coarse, whity-brown 
paper, and charged with numerous wood-cuts, each of 
which occupied an entire page, that, on principles of 
economy, bore letter-press on the other side. And such 
delightful prints as they are ! It must have been some 
such volume that sat for its portrait to Wordsworth, and 
which he so exquisitely describes as: — 

" Profuse in garniture of wooden cuts, 
Strange and uncouth; dire faces, figures dire, 
Sharp-knee' d, sharp-elbow' d, and lean-ankled too, 



240 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

With long and ghastly shanks — forms which, once seen, 
Could never be forgotten." 

I quitted the dame's school at the end of the first twelve- 
month, after mastering that grand acquirement of my 
life — the art of holding converse with books. 

— By Hugh Miller. From "My Schools and School Masters, or The Story of 
My Education." 

1. Discuss (i) this account of learning to read; (2) the 
favorite books of childhood; (3) the plan of this account. 

2. Tell about the first story you read. 

II. Elements of Style. — Number of Words. — Con- 
ciseness. One great virtue in speech is conciseness — 
saying all we need to say as briefly as it can be said. If 
we say more than we need to say, we are prolix. If we 
use more words than we need in saying it, we are verbose. 

To be concise we must realize clearly what is to be said, 
and say that in words that are straightforward and few. 
Make every sentence have a point. Guard against un- 
necessary words. Study the means of condensation. 

Means of Conciseness. — 1. Use expressive words in- 
stead of circumlocutions. Compare the gain in concise* 
ness in: 

The thing he threw went hissing through the air. The missile 

went. . . . 
They appointed the Prince of Wales to act in the Kings place. 

They appointed the Prince of Wales Regent. 
The men and women working in the factories went on strike. 

The operatives struck. 
It was so hot we could scarcely breathe. The heat was stifling. 

Exercise i. — Express the italicized parts more con- 
cisely: 1. There was once a shoemaker who worked hard 
and was honest, 2. The house stood on the cliff where the 



DESCRIPTION. 241 

winds blew. 3. A dog that has no friend is a creature that 
calls for our pity. 4. He who plants a tree conveys a 
benefit that lasts forever. 5. The lighthouse stands on a 
headland which is almost surrounded by the sea. 6. You 
and I are past the days in which we danced. 7. He is a 
man who always says what he believes to be true. 8. Clean 
that machine without delay and in a thorough manner. 9. 
The song and game birds lay eggs that come to a point. 
10. The words of the great poets are such as cannot die. 

2. Strike out unnecessary detail of fact or verbosity of 
expression. Compare : 

"I have discovered my friend Copperfield," said Mr. Micawber, 
"not in solitude, but partaking of a social meal in company 
with a widow lady and one who is apparently her offspring." 
with — 

" I found my friend Copperfield dining with a widow and her son." 
Exercise 2. — Substitute single words for the circum- 
locutions in the following: 1. The children were born on 
farms that lay near each other. 2. There they lived until 
the closing period of life. 3. What does this amount to, 
all the amounts being put together? 4. The boy felt a 
sudden sense of danger when he saw the one who was to 
contend against him appear. 5. People of other countries 
cannot vote here unless they have had the rights of 
citizenship conferred upon them. 6. The mustard and 
the daisy are plants that complete their life in a year. 7. 
To remove the contents from the can cut along the line 
marked. 8. They pushed the boat into the water and 
soon left behind the island surrounded with rocky shores. 
9. He made his home in the outskirts of the city where the 
view of the country pleased him. 



242 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



3. Use figures of speech. They can convey much 
meaning in a brief, picturesque way. See p. 245. Study 
brevity as shown in proverbs. 

Make hay while the sun shines. Hard words break no bones. 

Exercise 3. — Show, by explaining the full meaning, the 
conciseness of the following: 1. Love me, love my dog. 
2. Handsome is that handsome does. 3. It is a long lane 
that has no turning. 4. Soft words butter no parsnips. 
5, Misery loves company. 6. As the twig is bent the tree is 
inclined. 7. A wise son maketh a glad father. 8. It never 
rains but it pours. 9. Penny wise, pound foolish. 

III. Written Composition.— 1. Describe Hugh Miller 
learning to read and tell about his favorite books. 

2. Tell about the first books you read for pleasure. 

3. Tell how you first began to take pleasure in animals 
or in nature. 

4. Tell about the tricks of kittens. 




" Kittens." Photograph by E. J. Rowley. 






DESCRIPTION. 



243 



LESSON LXIII. 
I. Oral Composition. — The Boy in the Country,, 




" The Harvest Field." (" Apple Jack.") By 
Otto Stark. 



The Barefoot Boy. 

O for boyhood's time of June, 
Crowding years in one brief moon 5 
When all things I heard or saw, 
Me, their master, waited for. 
I was rich in flowers and trees, 
Humming-birds and honey-bees ; 
For my sport the squirrel played, 
Plied the snouted mole his spade ; 
For my taste the blackberry cone 
Purpled over hedge and stone ; 



244 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Laughed the brook for my delight 
Through the day and through the night, 
Whispering at the garden wall, 
Talked with me from fall to fall ; 
Mine the sand-rimmed pickerel pond, 
Mine the walnut slopes beyond, 
Mine on bending orchard trees, 
Apples of Hesperides ! 
Still as my horizon grew, 
Larger grew my riches too : 
All the world I saw or knew 
Seemed a complex Chinese toy, 
Fashioned for a barefoot boy. 

for festal dainties spread, 

Like my bowl of milk and bread, — 
Pewter spoon and bowl of wood, 
On the door-stone, gray and rude ! 
O'er me like a regal tent, 
Cloudy-ribbed, the sunset bent, 
Purple-curtained, fringed with gold, 
Looped in many a wind-swung fold ; 
While for music came the play 
Of the pied frogs' orchestra; 
And, to light the noisy choir, 
Lit the fly his lamp of fire. 

1 was monarch: pomp and joy 
Waited on the barefoot boy ! 

— By John Greenleaf Whittier. 

1. Draw up, from the preceding, a plan or topical out- 
line of a composition on the Boy in the Country. 

2. Review the poem to see (i) if it has a well-rounded 
scheme of introduction, body, and ending; (2) if it has 
an orderly arrangement of details giving coherence; (3) 
if the details are significant and interesting; (4) if there is 
a growth of interest to the end. 



DESCRIPTION. 245 

3. State, point by point, what the city boy can say of 
his life. 

II. Elements of Style. — Figures of Speech. Fre- 
quently writers seek for expressions more picturesque or 
more emphatic than a plain statement, and use a device of 
style known as a figure of speech. The figure of speech 
is not a plain literal expression. When we say — 
The brook laughed. — 



or, 
or, 
or, 



The fire -fly lit his lamp. — 

You can't put old heads on young shoulders. — 

He was a fine old English gentleman, his face as red as a rose, 
his hand as hard as a table, and his back as broad as a bul- 
lock's. — 

there is no intention of taking the words in their literal, 
matter-of-fact meaning. They are variations from literal 
expression for the sake of greater effect. They have 
enough of truth in them to be accepted for truth, but they 
present that truth in a simpler, more striking, more pict- 
uresque way than it would be presented by the literal 
expression. Such expressions are figures of speech. 

Exercise i . — Study the effect of the literal expression 
of the thoughts stated here figuratively: 1. That boy can 
run like a deer. 2. Now we are out of the frying-pan into 
the fire. 3. Accept a thousand thanks for your kindness. 
4. It is an ill wind that blows no man good. 5. That man 
was a burning and a shining light. 6. Columbia, the gem 
of the ocean. 7. He that toucheth pitch shall be defiled 
therewith. 8. When you return good for evil you heap 
coals of fire upon the wrong-doer. 9. Man proposes; God 



246 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

disposes. 10. Young blood must have its fling, lad, and 
every dog his day. 11. Washington was the Father of his 
Country; Wellington, the Iron Duke; Napoleon, the Man 
of Destiny. 

I. Figures Founded on Contrast. — Just as we print 
black letters on white paper, so we can put a mental con- 
trast beside the thought to intensify its force. Note the 
contrast and its effect in — 

United we stand; divided, we fall. 

Do noble deeds, not dream them all day long. 

This figure is called antithesis or contrast. 

II. Figures of Resemblance. — Another class of figures 
depends on resemblance, 

1. The resemblance is expressed by words of com- 
parison : 

The world seemed a Chinese toy. 

They were all at work, busy as bees and happy as crickets. 

Edinburgh seems to sit crowned with her castle like a very 

queen of romance. 
I wandered lonely as a cloud. 

This is called simile (sim! i le). 

2. Or, the resemblance is implied: 

I was monarch: pomp and joy 
Waited on the barefoot boy ! 

The meteor flag of England. Cromwell's Ironsides. 
At Aerschot up leaped of a sudden the sun. 

The rank is but the guinea's stamp, 
The man's the gowd (gold) for a' that. 

This is called metaphor imet f ah for). 



DESCRIPTION. 



247 



3. When the thing compared is treated as a person, this 
special metaphor is called personification. 

Can Flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of Death ? 

4. When the thing personified is addressed, it is apos- 
trophe {ah pos f tro je). 

Ye banks and braes o' Bonnie Doon ! 

Exercise 2. — Point out the figurative expressions in 
the following. State the idea they convey. Show how 
the figure makes the expression of the thought simpler, 01 
more forcible or picturesque than the literal: 1. All we, 
like sheep, have gone astray. 2. You are a rolling stone 
that gathers no moss. 3. It matters not to have been born 
in a duck-yard, if one has been hatched from a swan's 
egg. 4. Twilight is the sweetest, ripest hour of the day. 
5. Venice sat in state, throned on her hundred isles. 6. 
Walk by the light of experience. 7. October's gold is dim. 
8. The desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose. 9. 
The mountains look on Marathon and Marathon looks on 
the sea. 10. Those green-robed senators of mighty woods, 
tall oaks. n. Death loves a shining mark. 12. Sleep 
and his brother Death. 13. It is better to dwell in the 
corner of the housetop than with a brawling woman and 
in a wide house. 14. A great empire and little minds go 
ill together. 15. Generosity is catching. 

16. I a light canoe will build me 
That shall float upon the river 
Like a yellow leaf in Autumn. 

17. O sweet and far, from cliff and scar (steep rock) 

The horns of Elfland (i. e., bugle echoes) faintly blowing. 

18. This fortress built by nature for herself; 
This precious stone set in a silver sea; 

This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England. 



248 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



19. The national flag is a piece of floating poetry. It 
speaks sublimely, and every part has a voice. 

Exercise 3. — Point out and show the use of any figures 
in "The Barefoot Boy." 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Describe a boy's or 
a girl's life in the country. 

2. Draw up a plan similar to that made of the Lesson, 
on a boy's or a girl's life in the city. Write the description. 

3. Describe some characteristic scene in the country 
such as is shown in this picture. 




" Girl and Sheep." Photograph by E. J. Rowley. 



DESCRIPTION. 249 



LESSON LXIV. 

I. Oral Composition. — Discussion of description of 
character. 

Description of character takes two chief forms. The 
one method uses significant details of external appearance 
which suggest the character to us. The other analyzes 
the inner character, finds its chief quality, or its significant 
traits, and portrays those with the help of outer details of 
appearance, action, and speech. 

Study this description of — 

The Rambler. 

I was always fond of visiting new scenes and observing 
strange characters and manners. Even when a mere 
child I began my travels, and made many tours of dis- 
covery into foreign parts and unknown regions of my 
native city, to the frequent alarm of my parents, and the 
emolument of the town-crier. As I grew into boyhood, I 
extended the range of my observations. My holiday 
afternoons were spent in rambles about the surrounding 
country* I made myself familiar with all its places famous 
in history or fable. I knew every spot where a murder or 
a robbery had been committed, or a ghost seen. I visited 
the neighbor ng villages, and added greatly to my stock of 
knowledge, by noting their habits and customs, and con- 
versing with their sages and great men. I even journeyed 
one long summer's day to the summit of the most distant 
hill, whence I stretched my eye over many a mile of 



250 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

terra incog'nita, 1 and was astonished to find how vast a 
globe I inhabited. 

This rambling propensity strengthened with my years. 
Books of voyages and travels became my passion, and in 
devouring their contents I neglected the regular exercises 
of the school. How wistfully would I wander about the 
pier-heads in fine weather, and watch the parting ships, 
bound to distant climes — and with what longing eyes 
would I gaze after their lessening sails, and waft myself in 
imagination to the ends of the earth ! 

— By Washington Irving. From "The Sketch Book." 

1 . What does this passage portray ? Is the subject out- 
ward appearance or inner character ? What is the method 
used to show character? What is the sequence of details 
in the description? Is there a developing interest? Are 
there any picturesque touches to the description? 

2. What elements of humor do you notice in the use of 
the words " travels," " tours of discovery," " sages and 
great men," etc.? 

II. Elements of Style. — Figures of Speech. III. 
Figures of Association. Another class of figures de- 
pends on the relation of the parts or on association. 

1 . We may wish to call vivid attention to the most strik- 
ing and significant part of the object spoken of. 

Nelson had a fleet of sixty sail (i. e., ships). 
Give us this day our daily bread (i. e., food). 
The wealth of a Rothschild or an Astor (i. e., one of the class of 
very rich men). 

This is called synecdoche (sin ek f dok e). 

1 Unknown land. 



DESCRIPTION. 



251 



2. Or we may use something striking and significant 
associated with the object. 

When I am gray-headed (i. e., old), O God, forsake me not ! 
Kind hearts (kindness) are more than coronets (i. e., social rank). 
Read Shakespeare (i. e., his works). 

This is metonymy (me ton' eh me). 

Note. — There is a peculiar form of association by which the adjective is 
taken from the noun it qualifies and attached to the object associated : He lay 
upon his fevered couch. This is transferred epithet. 

Exercise i. — Point out the figurative expressions in 
the following. State the idea each conveys. Show how 
the figure expresses the idea more simply, forcibly, or 
vividly than the literal expression: 1. Spare the rod and 
spoil the child. 2. King Edward VII ascended the throne 
in 1 901. 3. This farmer hired his farm hands by the 
month. 4. The heroine was a Queen Elizabeth in brain 
and a Mary Stuart in spirit. 5. His heart relents but his 
hand is firm. 6. We passed the night under a friendly 
roof. 7. The lonely ranchman never hears the sound of 
the church-going bell. 8. Belgium's capital had gathered 
then her beauty and her chivalry. 9. The Englishman 
believes in roast beef. 10. "A Daniel come to judg- 
ment!" — I read that in Shakespeare. 11. He found a 
foemarj worthy of his steel. 12. Ungrateful children can 
bring down gray hairs in sorrow to the grave. 13. He 
walked till he had covered twelve stout miles. 

14. Upon my head they placed a fruitless crown, 
And put a barren sceptre in my hand. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Imitate the description 
of the Rambler, in a description of one of the following: 



252 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



i. The Idler. 2. The Dreamer. 3. The Observer. 4. 
The Busybody. 5. The Telltale. 

2. My Best Friend. 

3. Describe one of these types of city life. 




"City Types." Photograph by E. J. Rowley. 

Pupils may substitute, if they prefer, a similar study of some village or 
country type. 

4. Describe sectional or national types: 1. The South- 
erner. 2. The Yankee. 3. The Westerner. 4. The Ca- 
nadian. 5. The Indian. 6. The Eskimo. 7. The Japan- 
ese. 

5. Describe foreign types in an American city. 

6. Describe: 1. The Witch. 2. The Witch of Endor. 
3. Fairies. 4. Brownies. 



DESCRIPTION. 253 

LESSON LXV. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study this description of Icha- 
bod Crane in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow." 

The gallant Ichabod now spent at least an extra half 
hour at his toilet, brushing and furbishing up his best, and 
indeed only suit of rusty black, and arranging his looks 
by a bit of broken looking-glass that hung up in the 
school-house. That he might make his appearance be- 
fore Miss Van Tassel in the true style of a cavalier, he 
borrowed a horse from the farmer with whom he was 
domicilated, a chol'eric old Dutchman, of the name of 
Hans Van Ripper, and, thus gallantly mounted, issued 
forth like a knight-errant in quest of adventures. 

The animal he bestrode was a broken down plough- 
horse that had outlived almost everything but his vicious- 
ness. He was gaunt and shagged, with a ewe neck and 
a head like a hammer; his rusty mane and tail were 
tangled and knotted with burrs; one eye had lost its 
pupil, and was glaring and spectral, but the other had the 
gleam of a genuine devil in it. Still he must have had 
fire and metal in his day, if w T e may judge from the name 
he bore of Gunpowder. He had, in fact, been a favorite 
steed of his master's, the choleric Van Ripper, w T ho was a 
furious rider, and had infused, very probably, some of his 
own spirit into the animal; for old and broken down as he 
looked, there was more of the lurking devil in him than 
in any young filly in the country. 

Ichabod was a suitable figure for such a steed. He 
rode with short stirrups, which brought his knees nearly 



254 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

up to the pommel of the saddle; his sharp elbows stuck 
out like grasshopper's; he carried his* whip perpendicularly 
in his hand, like a sceptre, and, as his horse jogged on, 
the motion of his arms was not unlike the flapping of a 
pair of wings. A small wool hat rested on the top of his 
nose, for so his scanty strip of forehead might be called; 
and the skirts of his black coat fluttered out almost to the 
horse's tail. Such was the appearance of Ichabod and his . 
steed, as they shambled out of the gate of Hans Van 
Ripper, and it was altogether such an apparition as is 
seldom to be met with in broad daylight. 

— By Washington Irving. From "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," in "The 
Sketch Book." 

The whole story should be read. 

1. Suggest other suitable titles for the passage. Give 
a suitable title to each paragraph. Is the description of 
inward character or outer appearance ? What is the plan 
of the description? In what manner are the details in- 
troduced? What sentence summarizes the description? 

2. What are the humorous touches in the description? 
What kind of figure does the writer succeed in making of 
Ichabod ? 

II. Principles.— Figures of Speech. IV. Figures 
Based on Manner of Expression. Some figures depend 
for effect upon the way the thought is expressed — either 
on the repetition of words and ideas or on the order of 
words. 

I. The desired effect may be got by a heaping up of 
detail. 

And out of the house the rats came tumbling, 
Great rats, small rats, lean rats, brawny rats, 



DESCRIPTION. 255 

Grave old plodders, gay young friskers, 
Fathers, mothers, uncles, cousins, 
Cocking tails and pricking whiskers, etc. 

This is amplification. 

Exercise i. — Oral exercises on amplification: 1. Pupils 
at recess. 2. People in the street. 3. An abundant har- 
vest. 4. Books in the home of a book-lover. 

2. The desired effect may be got by the arrangement of 
parts, like steps in a ladder, in the order of increasing 
importance. 

/ came, I saw, I conquered. (Caesar's message home to Rome 

after his victory at Zela.) 
Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and 

my heart to this vote. 

This is the figure of climax. 

Note. — The opposite is the effect of the change of the expected climax by 
the sudden addition of a term of much lower degree : Die and endow a college — 
or a cat. This is anticlimax. 

Exercise 2. — Oral exercises on climax: 1. Tell of dif- 
ferent classes of men — what they do, stated in the order 
of the importance of their work. 2. Name different brave 
deeds that men have done. Put the statements in the 
order of their importance. 3. Tell briefly of the main 
achievements of great nations. Put the statements in 
climacteric order. 

3. The expression may be repeated for effect. 

Blow, blow, thou winter wind. 

When shall return the glory of your prime ? — 

No more, ah, never more ! 

This is repetition. 

Note. — The repetition of a letter for the sake of effect — Ye franks and frraes 
o' kmny Doon — is alliteration. 



256 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

4. The statement may take the form of a question to 
which we expect no answer. 

Who is here so base that would be a bondman? 
If any, speak, for him have I offended. 

This is interrogation. 

5. The statement may take the form of an exclamation. 

O, what a fall was there, my countrymen! 

This is exclamation. 

Exercise 3. — Some pupils make statements. Others 
vary the statements made and give emphasis by repeating 
parts or putting the statements as interrogations or ex- 
clamations. 

Exercise 4. — Point out the nature and value of the 
figure in each of the following : 1 . Never, never, never, will 
I desert the post of duty. 2. Can I see another's woe and 
not be in sorrow too? 3. Freeze, freeze, thou bitter sky. 
4. Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood clean 
from my hand? 5. How are the mighty fallen! 6. To 
the dry grass and drier grain, how welcome is the rain! 
7. Care killed the cat. 8. The drunkard has few friends; 
few care to know him; his acquaintance is a disgrace. 
9. Make life, death, and that vast forever one grand, sweet 
song. 10. Can the leopard change his spots? 

n. The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, 
The furrow followed free. 

12. Toiling, — rejoicing, — sorrowing, — 

Onward through life he goes. 

13. I have neither wit, nor words, nor worth, 
Action, nor utterance, nor the power of speech, 
To stir men's blood. 



DESCRIPTION. 257 

14. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods, 
There is a rapture on the lonely shore, 
There is society where none intrudes — 
By the deep sea, and music in its roar. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Describe Ichabod 
Crane as he went courting. 

2. Tell how the following group of boys came to be 
together; describe the boys, ending with the boy who is 
reading. 




"A Serious Story" Painting by J. G. Brown. N.A. By permission of the artist. 

3. Describe: 1. Santa Claus. ' 2. Mrs. Grundy. 3. 
Father Time. 4. Fussy People. 5. The Man who says 
"I told you so." 6. The People who read a Newspaper. 

7. The People I like at . 8. The People on a Car 

or Train. 9. The People in a Village I know. 



258 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

4. Describe a character in a book you have read: i. 
Sam Weller (" Pickwick Papers"). 2. Micawber (" David 
Copper-field"). 3. The Village Preacher ■-(" The Deserted 
Village"). 4. Ivanhoe. 

5. Your favorite character in the books you have read. 



LESSON LXVI. 

I. Oral Composition.— Study of characterization- 
historical characters. Discussion of a description of — 

Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots. 

Introduction: — The immense influence of Mary of Scots on 
the minds of all — an influence based on her personal charm, her 
mind, her tragic history. 

Description: — (1) Charm of Person. Brow open and regal; 
eyebrows, regular, graceful; hazel eyes, which seem to utter a thou- 
sand histories; the nose, with Grecian precision of outline; the 
mouth, well-proportioned, sweetly formed, designed to speak nothing 
but delight; the dimpled chin; the stately swan-like neck; a coun- 
tenance the like of which we know not to have existed in any other 
character moving in that high class of life. (See Scott, "The Ab- 
bot," chap. XXI.) 

(2) Mental Characteristics. — Hardly inferior in intellectual 
power to Elizabeth herself ; but in fire and grace and brilliancy of 
temper high above her. Loved voluptuous refinement ; lounged for 
days in bed, rising only at night for dances and music. Frame of 
iron, incapable of fatigue ; could gallop ninety miles. Loved ad- 
venture ; wished she were a man "to know what life it was to lie all 
night in the field, or to watch in the causey with a Glasgow bucklei 
and a broadsword." Grace of manner, generosity ; warmth of 
affection ; frankness ; sensibility ; gaiety ; poetry. As politician — 
astute and far-reaching, stern and intense. (See J. R. Green, "A 
Short History of the English People.") 



DESCRIPTION. 



259 



(3) Tragic History. Early widowhood in France; return to 
Scotland and exile ; imprisonment in England ; devotion to her ; 
execution. 

Conclusion : — Deepening spell of her name on posterity. 

I. Discuss the arrangement of details in this analysis. 

II. Elements of Style. — Figures of Speech. V. 
Figures Based on Manner of Expression. (Continued 
from p. 256.) 6. The effect desired may be got by an in- 
tentional overstatement or understatement. 

Augustus found Rome of brick and left it of marble. 

We proclaim independence, and carry on war with that object, 
while these cities burn, these pleasant fields whiten and bleach 
with the bones of their owners, and these streams run blood. 
This is hyperbole (hi per' bo le). 

7. The sentence may be so constructed that the parts 
have a certain symmetry. 

Handsome is that handsome does. 
Good to begin well, better to end well. 

This is balance. 

Note i. — Balance is usual when contrasts are expressed. 

Note 2. — Balanced expression, often aided by alliteration, is frequent in the 
pithy, popular, wise sayings called proverbs: A stitch in time saves nine. 
All's well that ends well. 

8. The expression may be brief, pungent, sententious. 

Man never is, but always to be, blest. 
God helps those that help themselves. 

This is the apophthegm (ap f 6 them). When it has a 
personal bearing it is called an epigram. 

9. The expression may mean one thing literally and 
suggest another and very different meaning. 

We have had no rain, water is scarce, and the milkman has had 
to raise the price of milk. 



260 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

I do not consult physicians, for I hope to die without them. 
This is irony. 

Note. — The particular cases above are innuendoes. When bitter and per- 
sonal, irony becomes sarcasm. 

io. The expression bears two senses with little or no 
change of sound. 

My hat and wig will soon be here, 
They are upon the road. — " John Gilpin." 
Matrimony is a matter o' money. 

This is the pun. 

Exercise i. — Point out the nature and value of the 
figure in each of the following: i. Open rebuke is better 
than secret blame. 2. It is better to rub out than to rust 
out. 3. None but the brave deserves the fair. 4. They 
have money to burn. 5. Blood is better than bone. 6. 
Silence is the most effective eloquence. 7. A wit with 
dunces and a dunce with wits. 8. No doubt but ye are 
the people and wisdom shall die with you (Job xii, 2). 
9. Better is a dinner of herbs where love is than a stalled 
ox and hatred therewith. 10. All Arabia breathes from 
yonder box. 11. She never slumbered in her pew — but 
when she shut her eyes. 12. Short accounts make long 
friends. 13. There is a time to weep and a time to laugh; 
a time to mourn and a time to dance. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. From your outline, 
describe the character of Mary Queen of Scots. 

2. Describe any other historical character: 1. Queen 
Elizabeth. 2. Oliver Cromwell. 3. Napoleon. 4. Well- 
ington. 5. Lincoln. 6. Gladstone. 7. Kaiser Wilhelm. 

3. Describe the character of some person as repre- 
sented in his portrait or photograph. 



CHAPTER X.— EXPOSITORY 
COMPOSITION. 




"Hop-Scotch." From stereograph copyright by Underwood and Un- 
derwood, New York. 

261 



262 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



LESSON LXVII. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study of Exposition. How 
games are played. Study this exposition of: 

How to Play Hop-Scotch. 

Hop-scotch is a hopping game played by several per- 
sons. A figure divided into compartments is drawn with 
chalk on the sidewalk or scratched on the ground. The 
player, hopping on one foot, tries to send a pebble from 
one compartment to another by pushing or kicking it 
with the foot on which he is hopping. If a player puts 
his foot down, or steps on a line, or does not kick the 
stone fully into the section next in order, he loses his 
turn and the next one begins. 

The arrangement of the diagram and the rules of the 
game vary greatly. This is one arrangement: 



S^ Cat's 


Face ^V^ 


1 1 


1 2 


9 


IO 




3 ^ ^ ^ ^ 
^^ 7 

5 ^^^'^n*^ 


3 


4- 


1 


2 



GOAL 



EXPOSITORY COMPOSITION. 263 

The players "pink" for starter; that is to say, each 
player in turn throws the small flat stone with which the 
game is to be played from Goal to Cat's Face, and the 
one who comes nearest the centre begins. 

He places the stone in section 1, and, hopping on one 
foot, kicks or pushes it into section 2, clear of the lines, 
and so on to 3 and 4, without resting, till he kicks it into 
section 8, when he can place his feet in 6 and 7. Then 
he goes on, kicking the stone into 9, 10, 11, 12, and when 
he reaches the cat's face he must send it, with one kick, 
all the way back to goal again. 

1. Show why "How to Play Hop-Scotch" is not a 
description, say, of boys at play. What is the advantage 
of the diagram given? What is the advantage of giving 
the picture of boys playing hop-scotch ? Should exposition 
be clear? be simple? 

2. What is told in the first paragraph? in the second? 
in the third? 

3. Tell what you judge is the nature of exposition. 
Tell what we should give special attention to in exposi- 
tion. 

II. Exposition. — Its Character Defined. There is a 
special kind of description that deals with the general and 
the abstract. Description of the general and abstract is 
called exposition. If we described a group of boys at 
play, it would be description; if we gave the method and 
rules of playing a certain game, it would be exposition. 
If we described Aunt Mary making bread, it would be 
description; if we told how bread is made, it would be 
exposition. If we pictured Napoleon, it would be a de- 



264 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

scription; if we defined military genius, it would be ex- 
position. In exposition we seek, then, to show the general 
method of doing anything, the nature or meaning of a 
general principle or quality, the general plan on which 
things are laid out and made. 

As exposition deals with the abstract and the general, 
it is not apt to be interesting, though it serves highly 
useful purposes. Our arithmetics, geometries, grammars, 
cook-books are expositions. Many sermons are exposi- 
tions of religious truth or doctrine, or of aspects of human 
nature. In short, almost all instruction involves exposi- 
tion. 

Exercise i. — Tell (orally) how to play some other 
simple game: "Tom-Tom-pull-away," "quoits," "Here 
come three kings arriving," " colors," " Jacob and Ra- 
chel," "drop the handkerchief," etc. Diagrams, if 
needed, may be drawn on the board. 

Other pupils will criticise the exposition for obscurity 
or omission. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write an exposition of 
prisoner's base, or hare-and-hounds, or drop the hand- 
kerchief, or basket-ball. 

Illustrate, where helpful, by diagram. 

2. Write an exposition of the game of jackstraws, or 
croquet, or tennis, or baseball, or lacrosse. 

3. Write an exposition of how to play charades, or 
family coach, or forfeits. 

4. Tell how to play your favorite game. 



EXPOSITORY COMPOSITION. 265 

LESSON LXVIII. 

I. Oral Composition. — Discussion of exposition of 
processes of nature. 

How to Make Bulbs Bloom. 

It has been said that a good Dutch bulb will defy the 
efforts of the stupidest of amateur gardeners to keep it 
from blooming. While it must be admitted that even a 
bulb will succumb to persistent bad treatment, it is quite 
true that with moderate care any one may have an early 
display of hyacinths and crocuses. 

A bulb is really a bud, needing for its development only 
heat and moisture. For winter flowering get good bulbs 
in September or October and plant them in ordinary pots. 
They require a loose, dry, and somewhat rich soil. The 
bulbs may be planted very closely, and they will grow only 
upward and downward, and will not expand sideways. 
To insure good drainage, bits of broken pottery should be 
put in the bottom of the pot. Plant the bulbs firmly, but 
do not cover them entirely with earth. 

When first planted they should be kept in a cool, dark 
place, and watered very sparingly, care being taken, 
however, that they never become perfectly dry. This will 
insure a strong growth of roots, and after some six weeks 
of darkness they should be placed in a warm sunny win- 
dow and given a more generous supply of water. 

There is a long list of flowering bulbs to choose from, 
but on the whole the hyacinth gives the most satisfactory 
result for window culture, though jonquils are often a 
great success, as are, sometimes, crocuses and tulips. 



266 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

1. Suggest any other suitable title for the exposition. 
Give brief titles for each paragraph. Show how the ex- 
position develops. Show the order in which the details 
are brought forward. Is there a good opening sentence? 
a good closing sentence? 

2. Is the exposition clear? Is it simple? 

3. Tell the class orally how some other flower or plant 
is made to grow. 

II. Principles of Exposition. — As the main purpose 
of exposition is instruction, it is essential that we should 
know what we try to teach, and that we should express 
what we know in style that is clear and, as far as possible, 
simple. 

1. The Plan. — It aids clearness and simplicity to ar- 
range the exposition according to a well-laid plan, or 
outline. Before writing, analyze the theme into its 
parts; see clearly how it can be introduced and pre- 
sented, part after part. Then follow your plan in writing 
the exposition. 

2. Paragraph Unity. — It aids clearness and sim- 
plicity to arrange the details of each part of the exposition 
in one paragraph. 

3. Topic Sentences. — It aids clearness and simplicity 
to state the general theme of your exposition early and to 
state the sub- topic of each paragraph as you take up 
each part. 

Exercise i. — Point out how these are suitable opening 
sentences of expositions: 

1. "I shall attempt to determine what we are to under- 
stand by Letters or Literature, in what Literature con- 



EXPOSITORY COMPOSITION. 267 

sists, and how it stands relatively to Science." (J. H. 
Newman, "Literature.") 

2. "Man's sociability of nature evinces itself, in spite 
of all that can be said, with abundant evidence by this 
one fact, were there no other: the unspeakable delight he 
takes in Biography." (Thomas Carlyle, Essay "Biog- 
raphy.") 

Exercise 2. — (1) Draw up the plan of the exposition 
"How to Make Bulbs Bloom." (2) Point out the parts of 
the exposition and discuss their order. (3) Is the principle 
of paragraph unity observed? (4) Point out the topic 
sentences of each part. 

III. Written Composition. — i. i. Tell from memory 
(using your plan of the exposition) how to grow hya- 
cinths. Or, 2. Potatoes. 3. Lettuce. 4. Celery. 

2. How a plant grows: germination, roots, stem, 
leaves, flowers, seed, distribution of seed. 

3. 1. Tell how to lay out a flower garden. (Draw a 
plan. Show the flowers and shrubs you would have.) 
Or, 2. A vegetable garden. 

4. Tell how we could make our School-house beautiful. 

5. How to make a hedge — the best kinds of shrubs to 
plant; the planting; the care. 

LESSON LXIX. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study this exposition of: 

An Electric Battery. 

An electric battery is a group of two or more electric 
cells. The cells are of many kinds; the simplest — the 



268 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



kind generally used with electric bells — is known as Le- 
clanche's cell. The cell consists of four parts: (i) a 
glass jar, which contains (2) a solution of ammonium 
chloride; (3) a rod, or cylinder, of carbon; (4) a rod, or 
sheet, of zinc. 

To set up the battery, fill each cell about half full of 
water and add as much powdered ammonium chloride as 
will dissolve. Put in the zincs and the carbons. Connect 
the zinc of one cell with the carbon of the other by a short 
copper wire. If the wire has an insulating covering, 
scrape it clean so as to ensure close metal contacts. Sim- 
ilarly connect the copper wires which run to the bell and 
the push-button to the two remaining binding-posts of 
the battery. One is the carbon, or " positive pole," and 
the other is the zinc, or " negative pole." The battery 
thus set up is represented by this diagram : 




-<E> 



Push 
button 



Bell 



Battery of two cells 

It is a curious fact that whenever the copper wires are 
connected so that the circuit is complete, particles of the 
zinc dissolve in the solution, and an electric current is 
created. When the circuit is broken no such action takes 
place. On this principle depends the operation of the 



EXPOSITORY COMPOSITION. 269 

electric bell. The circuit is normally open at the push- 
button. By pushing the button we bring the ends of the 
wires together and close the circuit, and the electricity 
flows along the wires. 

Care should be taken to see that the battery cells have 
tight covers to retard the evaporation of the water. The 
mouths of the glass jars should be coated with paraffin to 
prevent the solution from " creeping up" and encrusting 
the mouths of the jars. The battery will require a new 
solution about once a year, and will need the addition of 
water two or three times a year to make up for what is 
lost by evaporation. New zincs will be required once in 
two or three years. The copper-wire connections will 
need to be cleaned once or twice a year. The screws at 
the connections must be kept tight; when the bell gives 
trouble it is generally due to the loosening of a screw. 

The battery costs about seventy-five cents. 

By Professor John F. Woodhull. 

1. Give a full title for the whole exposition. 

2. Give a phrase or sentence that could be put before 
each paragraph and tell its purpose in the exposition. 
Have the paragraphs unity ? Have they topic sentences ? 

3. Account for the order in which the different parts 
of the exposition follow each other. 

4. What does the diagram add to the exposition ? Why 
are diagrams often necessary to exposition ? 

5. Point out any words or phrases that are new to you; 
discuss their meaning; use each in a sentence of your own. 

II. Principles of Exposition. (Continued) — 4. Sim- 
plicity is essential to successful exposition. Simplicity is 



2 JO COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

attained (i) by simple words, by short sentences, by sim- 
ple structure of the whole composition. (2) Simplicity is 
attained by making the treatment of the subject as con- 
crete as possible. Abstract ideas and relationships can 
be expressed often through concrete images and illustra- 
tions, such as: 

1. Plans, diagrams, maps, pictures, that show to the 
eye relationships difficult to be conveyed by w r ords. 

2. Examples and stories that embody the idea in life 
and action — courage expounded by illustrious acts of 
courage; patriotism shown by the lives of illustrious 
patriots. 

3. Comparisons, analogies, parables. To explain the 
nature of mercy, Shakespeare writes : 

The quality of mercy is not strained; 
It droppeth like the gentle rain from heaven 
Upon the place beneath. 

To show the difference between mirth and cheerfulness, 
Addison writes: 

Mirth is like a flash of lightning that breaks through a gloom 
of clouds and glitters for a moment; cheerfulness keeps up a 
kind of daylight in the mind, and fills it with a steady and 
perpetual serenity. 

Deep truths of human life were expressed by Jesus in 
the parables of the Good Samaritan, the Sower, the 
Prodigal Son. 

Exercise i. — (Oral.) Explain the principle of any 
common machine — the lever, the plane, the common 
pump, the lawn-mower. 

Diagrams, when helpful, should be drawn on the blackboard. Pupils will 
criticise any obscurity or omission. 



EXPOSITORY COMPOSITION. 271 

Exercise 2. — (Oral.) Explain any simple process of 
nature — how rivers are formed, how mountains have been 
made, why the weather is cold in our winter months. 

Exercise 3. — (Oral.) Explain any simple process in 
arithmetic — addition, subtraction. 

Exercise 4. — Show by examples the meaning of self- 
sacrifice, honor, meanness, treachery. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Tell how you could 
set up an electric battery and bell in your own home. Or, 
Tell how to make and set up a dry battery. 

2. Explain the plan of a stove or range (wood, coal, or 
gas), and explain the meaning of its parts, the principle of 
its working. (Give drawings.) 

3. Tell how: 1. To catch mice or moles. 2. To set a 
bear-trap. 3. To build a chicken-house or pigeon-house. 
4. To build an ice-boat. 

4. Explain: 1. A simple signal system on a railroad, or 
on a steam-boat. (Make drawings to illustrate.) 2. The 
principle of the steam-engine. 3. The common pump. 
4. The electric current. 5. The gas-engine. 6. A rifle. 
7. A dynamite blast. 8. A flying machine. 9. X-rays. 
10. Wireless telegraphy. 11. How the eyes see. 12. How 
the ears hear. 

5. Tell how to build a bark canoe. (See Hart's " Source 
Readers in American History," No. 2.) 

6. Tell how the pioneers built their log-cabins. (See 
Hart's " Source Readers," No. 3.) 

7. Explain: 1. The rainbow. 2. The turning of the 
leaves in autumn. 3. The appearance of the sky at sun- 



272 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



set. 4. Moonlight and the phases of the moon. 5. A 
spring of water. 

8. Explain: 1. The transformations of water — ice, 
evaporation, fog, cloud, rain, snow, frost. 2. Frost — 
dew, vapor, cold — effect on windows, trees, grass, water 
— snow-flakes, their beauty. 3. Why spring comes to the 
earth. 

LESSON LXX. 




;V ^ -/ 



, ;i: \ ik< 



" Picking Cotton." From copyright stereograph by Underwood and Underwood t New York. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study this exposition of: 

How Cotton is Grown and Picked. 

Throughout all the Southern States that border on the 
sea grows the cotton plant. In the month of February 
cultivation begins. You see men clearing the cotton 



EXPOSITORY COMPOSITION. 



2 73 



fields of the litter of the old crop, ploughing and harrowing 
the ground, and forming it into ridges, in which, some 
time in April, the cotton seeds are planted. The seeds are 
dropped into holes some twelve inches apart, five or six 
seeds in a hole, lightly covered with earth, and in twelve 
days or so the plants are seen growing. They must be 
cared for, thinned, weeded, and bedded up, and if there 
have been frequent showers with plenty of hot sunshine in 
between, the plants come into bloom by mid- June. By 
this time the plant will be three or four feet in height, in 
shape tapering like a fir tree, its leaves heart-shaped, its 
flowers of five rose-colored petals. 

Two months later the seed-pods are ripe and begin to 
burst. They hold the new seeds amidst a mass of cotton 
fibres. The cotton fibres are intended by nature to help 
the distribution of the seed, like the feathery crown of the 
dandelion or thistle, but cultivation has increased the 
mass and weight of these fibres, so that man has found in 
them the chief source of his clothing. 

Then comes the picking of the cotton. This is the 
most tedious of all the processes involved in the growing. 
It must be done by hand, and as the fibres are firmly 
attached to the pod, skill is required to clean a boll x with 
one movement of the hand without bringing away any of 
the husk. It must be done, too, in the hot sunshine, and 
the weight of the bag tells heavily on neck or arm as the 
day goes on. For these reasons, the planters do all in 
their power to promote a cheerful spirit in the fields, and 
talking and singing lighten the labor of the picking. 

The cotton, when picked, is drawn to the ginning mill. 

1 The pod before the cotton is picked — pr. bole. 



274 



COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 



There the gin takes out the seeds that cling tenaciously 
to the cotton, and must be cut from the fibres by revolving 
or oscillating knives. After this the cotton is put into 
powerful presses to reduce its bulk, and is bound by iron 
bands into bales. For many years the bales were square 
and irregular, but recently cylindrical bales have been 
introduced, of uniform size, four feet long and two feet 
in diameter. The cotton in bales now leaves the planta- 
tion for the mill, where it is prepared by countless proc- 
esses for its many uses, such as thread, muslin, duck, 
lace, stockings and other woven articles. 




"A Ginning Mill." Pho.ograph. 

1. State briefly in a sentence or two each of the stages 
of the cotton-growing industry. 

2. How do the pictures help the story? 

3. What elements of picturesqueness does the writer 
add to the plain exposition ? Does he thereby add to its 
clearness, or simplicity, or interest ? In what way is this 
exposition like a narrative ? In what way like a descrip- 
tion? 



EXPOSITORY COMPOSITION. 



275 



4. Name any new words or phrases you find in the 
exposition; use them in sentences of your own. 

5. Draw up a topical outline of "How Cotton is Grown 
and Picked." 

II. Qualities of Style. — Simplicity. For all practical 
purposes the best style of writing is a simple style. Write 
as you speak. Use familiar words in easy familiar sen- 
tence forms made forcible by natural illustrations. 

1. Simple Words. — All words — both long and learned 
words as well as short and simple ones — have their uses, but, 
where you can, use the short and simple term. (See p. 222.) 

Exercise i. — Examine the following list and use one 
or the other expressions in a sentence of your own con- 
struction. Some of the words given are only pretentious 
terms. Try the effect of each. 



building 


edifice 


choose 


select 


church 


sacred edifice 


die 


expire 


farmer 


agriculturalist 


give 


donate 


fire 


conflagration 


go 


proceed 


foot 


extremity 


go to bed 


retire 


hole 


cavity 


grow young 


rejuvenate 


house, home 


residence, domicile 


happen 


transpire 


leg 


lower limb 


lie 


prevarication 


man, person 


individual 


live 


reside 


meal 


repast 


part 


section 


saleswoman 


saleslady 


recover 


recuperate 


servant 


domestic assistant 


settle 


locate 


shop 


emporium 


stop 


arrest 


tombstone 


monumental marble 


think 


calculate 


tree 


denizen of the forest 


throw down 


precipitate 



2. Concrete Words. — It is easier to think of grass than 
of vegetation, of a boy than of boyhood, to cite Xelson 



276 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

than to explain valor and patriotism. The simple style 
uses the concrete term rather than the abstract. By 
using concrete terms, by homely allusions, we keep before 
the mind definite, familiar images. 

This is our life from the cradle to the grave. 
If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget her cun- 
ning. 

(See p. 213.) 

3. Easy Sentences. — The simple style requires easy 
and familiar sentence structure. Have your sentences, 
therefore, short rather than long and involved. If any 
sentence you have written seems, when you read it aloud, 
to have parts that hang heavy, it is a bad sentence. Shorten 
it by cutting down the detail, or make it over into several 
short sentences. Let the movement of your composition 
seem as if you were speaking, and speaking easily and 
frankly. 

Exercise i. — Express in simple style these pretentious 
sentences: 1. Poets are often born in indigent circum- 
stances and die in similar conditions. 2. Render her all 
the assistance that lies in your power. 3. He assisted me 
by imparting the information of the nearest way to my 
destination. 4. He was aggrieved by the remarks you 
expressed. 5. My friend's parental abode is contiguous 
to mine. 6. That comedy has not vitality enough to keep 
it from putrefaction. 7. At seven o'clock the assembled 
guests sat down at the festive board, where the viands 
were spread in the most appetizing way. 8. It is difficult 
to make a decision concerning apples when they have all 
reached a decomposed state. 9. Our readers will receive 
with regret the intelligence that our esteemed townsman, 



EXPOSITORY COMPOSITION. 277 

Dr. Hodge, was yesterday the recipient of severe injuries 
through being precipitated from his horse. The equine 
exhibited signs of trepidation at the railway crossing, and 
when a train suddenly put in an appearance, it took 
flight, and the Doctor sustained some severe contusions, 
from which, however, he is recuperating, to the universal 
satisfaction of all. 10. Professor Jones's tonsorial parlor 
was destroyed by a conflagration last evening. 

Exercise 2. — Point out in what different respects 
"How Cotton is Grown and Picked" is simple in its 
style. 

III. Written Composition. — i. Following your topical 
outline, write an account of how cotton is grown. Illus- 
trate your exposition. 

2. Tell how one of the following is got: 1. Coal-oil. 
2. Coal. 3. Salt. 4. Silk. 

These topics may be worked up in oral discussion, the details noted on the 
blackboard, and a topical outline drawn up in preparation for written work. 
Much time may profitably be spent on the study of clearness and simplicity i 1 
arrangement. 

3. Tell how one of the following is made: 1. Leather. 
2. Iron. 3. Steel. 4. Cotton. 5. Paint. 6. Illuminating 
gas. 7. Soap. 8. Yeast. 9. Candles. 10. Cider. 11. 
Vinegar. 

4. Tell: 1. How baskets are woven. 2. How carpet is 
woven. 3. How my shoes were made. 4. How a book 
is printed. 5. How a book is bound. 



278 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

LESSON LXXI. 

I. Oral Composition. — How Things are Made. 
How to Make a Loaf of Bread. 

To make a sweet, light, crusty loaf of bread is a rare 
accomplishment, but quite possible for any one who is 
patient and careful. You may make bread from the 
flour of various cereals — rye, oats, barley, maize, wheat- 
but wheat flour is the best because it contains the right 
proportion of gluten to make a spongy loaf. 

The utensils you need for making bread are a measuring 
cup, a teaspoon, a large spoon, a large knife, a double 
boiler, a mixing-bowl, a sieve, a board for kneading, and a 
baking-pan. 

The materials needed to make one loaf of fair size are : 

1 cup of milk, or of milk and 3 teaspoonfuls of butter. 

water (half and half). 1 yeast cake. 

1 teaspoonful of sugar. 3 cups of flour. 
1 teaspoonful of salt. 

First comes the mixing. Scald the milk in the double 
boiler. This will kill the bacteria that might make the 
bread sour or otherwise injure the flavor. Remove the 
double boiler from the fire. Take one-quarter cup of the 
hot milk, and, as soon as it is lukewarm, break up and 
dissolve in it the yeast cake. If you put the yeast into 
the milk when it is hot, you will kill the yeast plant, and 
your bread will not rise. Pour the rest of the milk into 
the mixing-bowl, and add and stir in the sugar, salt, but- 
ter (or other shortening). Sift the flour and measure 
three even cupfuls. When the hot mixture has become 



EXPOSITORY COMPOSITION. 279 

lukewarm, stir in the milk containing the yeast. Add 
two cupfuls of flour and vigorously beat the mixture to 
put air into the sponge, which will aid the growth of the 
yeast plant. Then add as much of the third cup of flour 
as may easily be stirred in, and stir till it is too thick to 
mix with the spoon. Then flour your board and turn the 
sponge out on it. 

Now comes the kneading. Toss the sponge first with 
the knife until it is firm enough to work with the hands. 
Then shape it into a piece a little longer than wide. 
Knead it by drawing the long end of the dough toward 
you, till it almost meets the edge near you, then press the 
folded edge down firmly with the hard part of the palm 
just next the wrist. Turn the sponge quarter-way round, 
and repeat the kneading process until the texture is firm 
and smooth, and the dough cracks in the working. If 
you are swift and skilful this will take less than five 
minutes. In kneading, keep the fingers and the hollow 
of the hands free from dough; have the board well floured, 
and flour the part of the hand used in kneading. Keep 
the rough edges of the dough on top. When the dough 
sticks to the board, free it with a sharp knife. In knead- 
ing you will nearly finish the third cup of flour. 

Now comes the rising. Wash and grease the mixing- 
bowl. Put in the sponge, cover it with a lid or with a 
folded cloth; put the bowl in a warm place, and allow 
the sponge to rise till it doubles in bulk. In a tempera- 
ture of ninety-eight degrees (hot summer heat) it should 
rise in an hour. In a cooler temperature it will take 
longer. In winter you can get the higher temperature 
by setting the bowl in a pan of warm water. But never 



280 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

put the bowl in water, or elsewhere, too warm for the 
hand, and never let the dough get cool (below sixty-five 
degrees), or you will kill the yeast plant. Take the 
dough, when doubled in bulk, turn it out again upon the 
slightly floured board, and mould it into a roll a third 
longer than the baking-pan. Keep the seamy side down. 
Turn a bit under at each end, so as to insure, when 
baked, a well-shaped loaf. Grease the baking-pan and 
put the dough into it. Set the pan in a warm place as 
before, cover it, and let it stand till the loaf has doubled 
in size. 

Now it is ready to be baked. The oven should be hot 
enough so that in the first quarter of an hour the bread 
should begin to brown, in the second quarter it should 
turn a rich golden shade, in the third quarter it should 
finish baking and shrink from the pan all around. Re- 
move it from the oven, cool the loaf by placing it across 
the open pan, in fresh, pure air. If the higher tempera- 
ture is maintained in the rising, the whole process between 
the mixing and the finished loaf will take three hours. 

Following these directions with patience and care, you 
should attain that rare accomplishment — the art of mak- 
ing a loaf of bread, golden brown in color, with a deep, 
rich, crisp crust and an even, porous, white centre — 
pleasant to look at and delicious and wholesome to 
eat. 

— By Mary Louise Furst. 

i. Draw up a plan or outline of the exposition. What 
are the main parts of the process ? Point out where each 
part is treated. Tell how the order of the parts is deter- 
mined. 



EXPOSITORY COMPOSITION. 281 

2. Examine the exposition in the light of the principles 
of exposition (p. 266). 

3. Tell the class how some other familiar object is 
made — butter, cheese, cake. 

Interest can be added to this by playing that each pupil contributes to an 
imaginary meal what he knows how to make. 

II. Qualities of Style. — Clearness. Clearness in 
style means that the reader can see straight through the 
words to the meaning the writer intends. To be clear 
the writer must watch these elements: 

1. The Plan. — Alt parts of the composition should 
develop according to a well-arranged plan or outline. 
Each necessary detail must be there and in its place. 

2. Precise Use of Words. — The words used must 
convey the exact meaning intended. (See p. 237.) 

3. Purity of English.— The words will not always be 
clear to the reader unless they are words familiar to good 
usage. Both clearness and good taste require us to reject 
slang, foreign terms, etc. (See p. 234.) 

4. Bearing of Words. — The references of nouns and 
pronouns to heir antecedents, and of adjectives to the 
words they modify, must be unmistakable. (See pp. 
203, 204, 208, 209.) 

5. Construction of Sentences. — Sentences must be 
well constructed and properly punctuated. Too many 
modifying words are an especial cause of obscurity. 

6. Bearing of Sentences. — The relation of sentences 
to each other must be made clear either by position or by 
references (by means of conjunctions, adverbs, and repe- 



282 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

titions). The use of topic sentences, coherence of details, 
etc., give clearness to the paragraph. 

Exercise i. — Study, from the point of view of clear- 
ness, the topic sentence, the conjunctions, adverbs, repe- 
titions, in this: 

A Farmyard. 

" Plenty of life in the farmyard! though this is the 
drowsiest time of the year just before hay-harvest; and it 
is the drowsiest time of the day, too, for it is close upon 
three by the sun. But there is always a stronger sense of 
life when the sun is brilliant after rain; and now he is 
pouring down his beams, and making sparkles among the 
wet straw, and lighting up every patch of vivid green moss 
on the red tiles of the cow-shed." 

Exercise 2. — Point out the words — conjunctions, ad- 
verbs, repetitions — that show clearly the bea ing of the 
sentences in "How to Make a Loaf of Bread." 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Draw up a topical 
outline, then tell how to make well one of the following: 
1. Tea. 2. Coffee. 3. Biscuits. 4. An omelet. 5. Ice- 
cream. 6. Yorkshire pudding. 7. Devonshire cream. 
8. Butter. 9. Cheese. 

2. Tell how clothes should be washed: cottons, wool- 
lens; soaping, washing, wringing, drying, hanging up; 
effect of air and sunshine on clothes. 

3. Tell how to do well one of the following: 1. Sweep 
and dust a room. 2. Wash dishes. 3. Iron clothes. 4. 
Make a dress. 5. Trim a hat. 6. Knit a stock ng. 7. 
Get air and sunlight into the house. 8. Furnish the living- 
room. 9. Dye clothes. 



EXPOSITORY COMPOSITION. 283 

LESSON LXXII. 

I. Oral Composition. — Exposition by story. Study 
this exposition of a principle. 

Who'll Turn the Grindstone. 

When I was a li tie boy, I remember, one cold winter's 
morning I was hailed by a smiling man with an axe on 
his shoulder. "My pretty boy/' said he, "has your father 
a grindstone?" "Yes, sir," said I. "You are a fine 
little fellow," said he, "will you let me grind my axe on 
it?" Pleased with the compliment of "fine little fellow," 
"Oh yes, sir," I answered, "it is down in the shop." 

"And will you, my man," said he, patting me on the 
head, "get me a little hot water?" How could I refuse? 
I ran, and soon brought a kettleful. "How old are you? 
And what's your name?" continued he, without waiting 
for a reply; "I am sure you are one of the finest lads that 
ever I have seen; will you just turn a few minutes for 
me?" 

Tickled with the flattery, like a little fool, I went to 
work, and bitterly did I rue the day. It was a new axe, 
and I toiled and tugged till I was almost tired to death. 
The school-bell rang, and I could not get away; my hands 
were blistered, and the axe was not half ground. At 
length, however, it was sharpened; and the man turned 
to me with, "Now, you little rascal, you have played 
truant; scud to school, or you'll rue it!" "Alas!" 
thought I, "it was hard enough to turn a grindstone this 
cold day, but now to be called a little rascal is too much." 

It sank deep into my mind, and often have I thought of it 



284 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

since. When I see a merchant overpolite to his cus- 
tomers, begging them to take a drink of liquor, and throw- 
ing his goods on the counter, I think, "That man has an 
axe to grind." 

When I see a man flattering the people, making great 
professions of attachment to liberty, who is in private life 
a tyrant, methinks, "Look out, good people! that fellow 4 
would set you turning grindstones.'' 

When I see a man hoisted into office by party spirit, 
without a single qualification to render him either re- 
spectable or useful, "Alas!" methinks, "deluded people, 
you are doomed for a season to turn the grindstone for a 
booby." 

— By Charles Miner. From a political pamphlet. 

1. What is the principle the writer seeks to teach in 
the foregoing? Show how the principle is applied by 
some merchant, some demagogue, some politician. 

Which is the simplest of all the illustrations given ? 

2. Show how this exposition shows the principle by a 
story and its application. 

3. Draw up a topical outline of the exposition. 

4. Discuss the elements of simplicity in the exposition. 
Point out any unusual words and use them in sentences of 
your own. 

II. Clearness. — Exercise i. Study the following sen- 
tences; see why they are not clearly expressed; make 
changes that will render the meaning clear: 1. He lacks 
tact, and tact is more necessary than ambition for success. 
2. We ask for nothing so much as riches. 3. Win success 
through industry, for it is a better friend than fortune. 



EXPOSITORY COMPOSITION. 285 

4. If only Julia knew how to sing! 5. He died from the 
wound, which was frightful. 6. The Roman emperors 
prosecuted the Christians. 7. He told us we could see 
how he did it if we watched hard. And w r e did. 8. The 
garden contiguous to the house, was a mass of luxurious 
verdure. 9. Rising from out the bracken they saw Rod- 
erick's men suddenly before them. 10. The master told 
his servant that he would be the death of him, if he did 
not take care what he was about and mind what he said. 
11. Every lady in this land has twenty fingers on each 
hand five and twenty on hands and feet and this is true 
without deceit. 12. The news did not affect him. 

III. Written Composition. — i. Tell the meaning of 
" You have an axe to grind"; show from a story how the 
saying arose; apply it in several familiar cases. 

2. Show in a story how the saying "You have paid too 
dear for your whistle" could arise; give familiar illustra- 
tion of its application; tell what it really means (Benjamin 
Franklin). 

3. Expound the meaning of: 1. "Love me, love my 
dog." 2. "A stitch in time saves nine." 3. "He laughs 
best who laughs last." 4. "It is a long lane that has no 
turning." 



286 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

LESSON LXXIII. 

1. Oral Composition. — Development of the exposition 
of an abstract term — Patriotism. Discuss the nature of 
each part of the exposition and make appropriate sen- 
tences for each. See that each paragraph has a topic 
sentence. 

Patriotism. 

i. Opening or Introduction. — Definition of the term 
(cf. Latin patria, one's country). (General topic sen- 
tence.) Purpose of this exposition to show origin and 
influence of patriotism. 

2. Body: (i) Origin of patriotism in the ties of home, 

of life, living, of the history of one's country — 
these go to make up love of country. 

(2) Power 0} Patriotism: — exposition by examples. — 

Leonidas, P.egulus, Tell, Wallace, Nelson, Wash- 
ington, etc. 

(3) Value 0} Patriotism: — in war; in peace. 

(4) Honor paid to Patriotism: — famous burial-places, 

monuments and pictures; poems and history; 
grateful memory of the nation. 

3. Conclusion. — Summary of the preceding exposition, 
ending with an application to the United States — its right 
to the love of Americans. 

Exercise i. — Draw up the plan or outline of the 
exposition. 

II. Written Composition. — 1. Following the outline 
of the oral study, write an exposition of patriotism. 

This and many of the succeeding themes may be cast, if praAerred, in the 
form of a speech. 



EXPOSITORY COMPOSITION. 287 

2. Show similarly the meaning of: 1. Our Country. 
2. Our School. 3. The Stars and Stripes. 4. The Cross. 

3. Tell the meaning and purpose of: 1. Arbor Day. 

2. The Fourth of July. 3. Labor Day. 4. Thanksgiving 
Day. 5. Christmas. 6. Sunday. 

4. Expound the differences between: 1. Order and 
disorder. 2. Truth and falsehood. 3. Good times and 
bad times. 

5. Show the value to mankind of: 1. Fire. 2. Rain. 

3. Steam. 4. The railway. 5. The newspaper. 6. The 
telephone. 7. The automobile. 8. Genius. 

6. 1. What is charity? (Bible, 1 Corinth, xiii). 2. What 
is mercy? (Shakespeare, "Merchant of Venice," Act IV). 
3. What is the true wealth of a nation? 4. The duty of 
being happy. 5. Fame. 6. Work. 

7. Examine into the nature of some sayings: 1. Charity 
begins at home. 2. Whatever is is right. 3. The voice 
of the people is the voice of God. 4. Love your neighbor 
as yourself. 

8. The books I like to read. 

Tell what you like to find in the books you read — characters and scenes — and 
what books you find these in. 

9. i. "O world, as God has made it, all is beauty!" 
(Exposition by examples.) 2. The power of habit. 3. 
What makes a man ? 4. What makes a nation great ? 



CHAPTER XL— ARGUMENTATION. 
LESSON LXXIV. 

I. Oral Composition. — Discussion of argumentation 
and oral arguments. 

II. Principles of Argumentation. — When we express 
the reasons why we believe or do not believe a certain 
statement, we make an argument, and the method of 
argument is called argumentation. Argumentation is a 
reasoned exposition, leading to a conclusion about the 
truth of a proposition. The general principles of ex- 
position apply to argumentation, but there is a special 
process peculiar to argumentation, called reasoning. 

Exercise i. — Show how to prove: i. Going to school 
is helpful to character and success. 2. Industry is the 
thing most necessary to success. 3. Dogs have reasoning 
powers. 

Exercise 2. — Point out the fallacy in each of the fol- 
lowing: 1. Boys should not swim because boys are some- 
times drowned while swimming. 2. The cat will not go 
on a cold stove because she has some time gone on a hot 
one. 3. All Englishmen love roast beef. Americans are 
not Englishmen. Therefore Americans do not love roast 
beef. 4. It took a great man to write the plays of Shake- 
speare. Bacon was a great man. Therefore Bacon wrote 

288 



ARGUMENTATION. ' 289 

the plays of Shakespeare. 5. All authors are mortal. 
Shakespeare is immortal. Therefore Shakespeare was 
not an author. 6. All flesh is grass. All grass is green. 
Therefore all flesh is green. 7. The flesh is frail. Fat 
men have most flesh. Therefore fat men are the greatest 
sinners. 8. All men are animals. All horses are animals. 
Therefore all men are horses. 9. Necessity is the mother 
of invention. Bread is a necessity. Therefore bread is 
the mother of invention. 10. The better the day the 
better the deed. 11. That isn't my fault, I am made that 
way. 12. I am a liar. If I am a liar, what I say is not 
true. Therefore I am not a liar. 

III. Written Composition. — i. Write out the argu- 
ment for the proposition that Girls should learn to swim. 

2. Write out the argument for or against one of the 
other propositions in Exercise 1. 

3. State in simple terms the reasons Burns gives in his 
poem to prove that "A man's a man for a' that." 

4. Write Paul's defence of himself (Acts xxvi). 

5. 1. Which is the happiest land? 2. Which is the 
happiest period of life ? 3. Which are more to be pitied — 
the blind or the deaf? 4. Which is the strongest motive 
in human life ? 5. Which is the more valuable to mankind, 
history or poetry? 6. Which helps a man more, reading 
or observation? 7. Which is preferable, town or country 
life? 8. Is poverty due to the individual or to the social 
state ? 9. What occupation is the most essential to man- 
kind? 10. Which is the most useful tree? 11. Should 
women vote? 

Interest in argumentation and its value will be increased by using sides — 
the method of debate — in the handling of the topics, both in oral and written 
work. 



CHAPTER XII.— PERSUASION. 

LESSON LXXV. 

I. Oral Composition. — Study the argument in the 
following speech: 

Chatham's Plea for Peace. 

In the campaigns of 1776-1777 Great Britain struck at New York and the 
great strategic line of the Mohawk and Hudson rivers. As a net result of two 
years' work the British held New York, Philadelphia and Newport. After the , 
defeat of Burgoyne they had abandoned Ticonderoga and the highland of the 
Hudson. They had lost an army and conquered nothing but the ground on 
which they were encamped. "Their attempt to break through the centre of 
the American position had ended in total defeat, ^and it now began to seem 
clear to discerning minds that there was small chance of their being able to 
conquer the United States." (Fiske.) This speech was delivered in November 
1777, when Chatham had entered on his seventieth year and was much broken 
in health. It is said to be the only one of his speeches of which Chatham cor- 
rected the report and which was published with his approval. 

My Lords, this ruinous and ignominious situation, 
where we cannot act with success, nor suffer with honor, 
calls upon us to remonstrate in the strongest and loudest 
language of truth, to rescue the ear of majesty from the 
delusions which surround it. The desperate state of our 
army abroad is in part known. No man thinks more 
highly of them than I do. I love and honor the English 
troops. I know their virtues and their valor. I know 
they can achieve anything but impossibilities; and I know 
that the conquest of English America is an impossibility. 

290 



PERSUASION. 291 

You cannot, I venture to say it — you cannot conquer 
America. Your armies in the last war effected everything 
that could be effected; and what was it ? It cost a numer- 
ous army, under the command of a most able general, now 
a noble Lord in this House, a long and laborious campaign, 
to expel five thousand Frenchmen from French America. 
My Lords, you cannot conquer America. What is your 
present situation there? We do not know the worst; but 
we know that in three campaigns we have done nothing 
and suffered much. Besides the suffering, perhaps total 
loss, of the northern force, the best appointed army that 
ever took the field, commanded by Sir William Howe, 
has retired from the American lines. He was obliged to 
relinquish his attempt, and with great delay and danger 
to adopt a new and distant plan of operations. We shall 
soon know, and in any event have reason to lament, what 
may have happened since. As to conquest, my Lords, I 
repeat, it is impossible. You may swell every expense 
and every effort still more extravagantly; pile and accu- 
mulate every assistance you can beg or borrow; traffic and 
barter with every little pitiful German prince that sells 
and sends his subjects to the shambles of a foreign prince : 
your efforts are forever vain and impotent — doubly so 
from this mercenary aid on which you rely; for it irritates, 
to an incurable resentment, the minds of your enemies, 
to overrun them with the mercenary sons of rapine and 
plunder, devoting them and their possessions to the ra- 
pacity of hireling cruelty. If I were an American, as I 
am an Englishman, while a foreign troop was landed in 
my country, I would never lay down my arms — never — 

never never ! By William Pitt, Earl of Chatham. 



292 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

1. State as briefly and plainly as possible the funda- 
mental thought of the passage. 

2. State briefly the historical facts upon which Chat- 
ham's speech is based. 

3. State as simply as possible the reasoning in the 
speech. 

4. Develop step by step the coherence of the thoughts 
of the speech. Show how the speech is climacteric. Show 
the basis of the appeal Chatham makes. Show to what 
end the speech persuades. 

II. Principles of Persuasion. — Pure argument is es- 
sentially intellectual, but men are moved more strongly 
through their whole nature than through the intellect alone. 
Argument may "beat down your opponent's arguments 
and put better in their place" (Dr. Johnson); but people 
may not be moved to action, however convinced. They 
must be touched more deeply. Action springs out of our 
whole nature — our feelings, associations, aspirations, and 
desire for love, money, power, honor, fame. If these are 
touched, we are moved to sympathy and cooperation. 
That is the reason for persuasion. Oratory has, as its 
object, not convincing so much as persuading. To per- 
suade, you must please; you must convince; and you must 
touch the motives that actually determine human action. 

Exercise i. — Give simple illustrations of persuasion in 
school-boy and school-girl life. 

Exercise 2. — Study the elements of persuasion in 
Chatham's appeal for peace with the American Colonies. 
Show how pride, pathos, indignation, majesty, contribute 
to the persuasion of the speech. 



PERSUASION. 



2 93 



III. Written Composition.— i. Write out the simple 
argument of Chatham's speech; then give the speech in 
your own words, adding what elements of persuasion you 
can. 

2. Write a speech appealing for some needed improve- 
ment in the school, or for aid to the ball-club, etc. 

3. Write a speech adapted to some character of history 
and suited to some crisis in his life. 

Lincoln's Gettysburg Address may, with advantage, be read and studied 
as further preparation for this exercise. 

LESSON LXXVI. 
I. Oral Composition. — Discuss the following: 

Webster's Peroration to "The Bunker Hill 
Oration." 

Let the sacred obligations which have devolved on this 
generation, and on us, sink deep into our hearts. Those 
who established our liberty and our government are daily 
dropping from among us. The great trust now descends 
to new hands Let us apply ourselves to that which is 
presented to us, as our appropriate object. We can win 
no laurels in a war for Independence. Earlier and 
worthier hands have gathered them all. Nor are there 
places for us by the side of Solon, and Alfred, and other 
founders of states. Our fathers have filled them. But 
there remains to us a great duty of defence and preserva- 
tion; and there is opened to us, also, a noble pursuit, to 
which the spirit of the times strongly invites us. Our 
proper business is improvement. Let our age be the age 
of improvement. In a day of peace, let us advance the 



294 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

arts of peace and the works of peace. Let us develop the 
resources of our land, call forth its powers, build up its 
institutions, promote all its great interests, and see whether 
we also, in our day and generation, may not perform 
something worthy to be remembered. Let us cultivate a 
true spirit of union and harmony. In pursuing the great 
objects which our condition points out to us, let us act 
under a settled conviction, and an habitual feeling, that 
these twenty-four States are one country. Let our con- 
ceptions be enlarged to the circle of our duties. Let us 
extend our idea over the whole of the vast field in which 
we are called to act. Let our object be, our country, 

OUR WHOLE COUNTRY, AND NOTHING BUT OUR COUNTRY. 

And, by the blessing of God, may that country itself be- 
come a vast and splendid monument, not of oppression 
and terror, but of Wisdom, of Peace, and of Liberty, upon 
which the world may gaze, with admiration, forever ! 

The close of an address delivered by Daniel Webster, at the laying of 
the corner-stone of the Bunker Hill Monument, June 17, 1825. 

1. What is the chief thought of this passage? What 
contrast is expressed in the first part of the paragraph ? 

2. In what different ways does Webster apply the idea 
of "our business is improvement" ? 

3. Show that the speech has the elements of pathos, 
pride, majesty. Show that the order of the speech is up 
to a climax. 

4. Point out any words unusual to you; use them in 
sentences of your own. 

II. Qualities of Style. — Force. It is the aim of a 

writer or speaker not only to be clear and if possible sim- 
ple, but to be forcible; to make what he says tell. He 



PERSUASION. 295 

wants his reader not merely to understand what he says, 
but to feel it and remember it. Force in writing comes 
preeminently from strength of thought — the freshness and 
vigor of the message expressed. It depends also on the 
way in which every thought is expressed. Force seeks the 
expression suited to it, and modifies the writer's style in 
every aspect. 

In expressing the very same thought, there are weak 
ways and there are strong ways. 

If Cassio had said — "I have lost my reputation" — he 
would have expressed a thought simply and clearly, but 
without any special force. What he did say was : 

" Reputation, reputation, reputation! I have lost my reputa- 
tion!" 

That was forcible. 

1. Amplification. — We gain force by dwelling upon 
the idea, by repetition or by amplification of details. 

Our proper business is improvement. Let our age be an age of 

improvement. 
We cannot dedicate — we cannot consecrate — we cannot hallow 

this ground. 
You cannot, you cannot conquer America. 

The dogs did bark, the children screamed, 
Up flew the windows all. — " John Gilpin." 

2. Emphasis by Sentence Stress. — Every sentence of 
any length shows varying degrees of emphasis (stress of 
the voice) on its parts Mark the important words in 
any sentence in the address above. They will be found 
to have the stress of the voice. 

Study this sentence: 

You can'not, I venture to say it — you cannot conquer America. 



296 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Note how we slip the phrase when it is unimportant into 
the middle of the sentence. 

For the opening of the sentence is a favorite place for 
the emphatic word, as it is the first part heard. 

The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have con- 
secrated it. 

Life', I know not what thou art. Ruin' seize thee, ruthless 
king! 

But the close of the sentence is also emphatic, for we can 
prepare for it and it is the last heard. 

I would never lay down my arms — never — never — never ! 
Government of the people, by the people, for the people shall 

not perish from the earth. 
Her children rise up and call her blessed' . 

Some sentences use both emphatic places. 

Peace' hath her victories no less renowned than war'. 
Lay the proud usurper low ! 

Tyrants fall in every foe, 
Liberty's in every blow; 

Let us do' or die'! 

It follows, then, if the beginning and the end are em- 
phatic places in the sentence, that the middle of the sen- 
tence is naturally unemphatic. Note, therefore, how 
naturally the less important words fall into the middle of 
the sentence. 

As to conquest, my Lords, I repeat, it is impossible. 
The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have con- 
secrated it. 

3. Emphasis of Unusual Order. — We notice the un- 
usual. Any break, anything unusual, in the grammatical 
order of the sentence, gives emphasis to the part in an 



PERSUASION. 297 

unusual place. Compare the effect of the unusual and 
the usual order in: 

Great and wonderful are Thy works'. (Thy works are great 
and wonderful.) 

Sometimes we find the emphasis from an unusual order 
joined with the sentence stress to give great force. 

Flash? d' all their sabres bare?! (All their bare sabres flashed.) 

4. Force by Figures of Speech.— Sometimes the thought 
that seeks emphatic expression finds it in question (see 
p. 256) or exclamation (see p. 256) rather than in ordinary 
assertion. 

What's in a name? (There is nothing in a name.) 
Give me liberty or give me death! (I should rather die than 
not be free.) 

By direct quotations: 

And every one cried out "Well done !" 
Force may seek to intensify the thought by contrast 
(p. 246), and climax (p. 255). 

5. Emphasis in the Paragraph. — The principle of 
emphasis in the sentence holds in the paragraph. The 
opening sentence, unless plainly introductory, holds our 
attention. It can interest us in the paragraph to follow, 
of which it should give a forecast or prelude. Hence the 
opening sentence is usually the topic sentence. So, too, 
the last sentence of the paragraph is emphatic. It should 
be the summary or conclusion. 

In oratory, the closing paragraph is called the perora- 
tion. Study the close of Chatham's address. 

Exercise i. — Render each of these sentences more 
emphatic by repeating the word or phrase to be made 



298 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

stronger, or by amplifying it, or adding a contrast: 1. 
Freeze, thou bitter sky. 2. I chatter as I flow. 3. Truth 
is so difficult (add contrast). 4. "Come back, Horatius!" 
loud cried the fathers all. "Back, Lartius, Herminius, 
ere the ruin fall!" 5. As the horse ran away, there was 
a scene of confusion in the street (amplify). Such a 
pleasant cottage it was, with its . . . (amplify). 

Exercise 2. — Alter the order of parts in the following 
sentences to secure better stress on the parts that should 
be emphasized. 1. Brave Horatius then spake out. 2. 
The whip goes crack! and we go off. 3. Earth praises 
God with her thousand voices. 4. A thing of beauty is 
forever a joy. 5. The rebel rides no more on his raids. 

6. Gentleness makes a man when it weds with manhood. 

7. The principal thing is wisdom, therefore get wisdom, 

8. He did well whatever he did. 9. The road was a cattle- 
track that I followed. 10. These are Clan-Alpine's true 
warriors, and I am Roderick Dhu, Saxon, n. You are 
a snob if you are ashamed of your poverty and blush for 
your calling. 12. The wind — a gale from the north-east — 
blew colder and louder. 

Exercise 3. — Study Chatham's Speech for force, look- 
ing at the five forms in which force usually affects style. 
Exercise 4. — Study Webster's peroration for force. 

III. Written Composition. — 1. Write an address suit- 
able for delivery on: 1. Thanksgiving Day. 2. Washing- 
ton's or Lincoln's Birthday. 3. At the unveiling of a 
statue to Columbus, Hudson, or some other discoverer. 4. 
The setting up of a tablet to the founder of the place 
you live in. 5. Farewell to School. 



CHAPTER XIII.— SPECIAL QUALITIES OF 
STYLE. 

LESSON LXXVII. 

I. Oral Composition. — Discussion of modulation and 
symmetry. 

II. Qualities of Style. — Modulation. Every sentence 
that departs from the simple grammatical order of the 
sentence does so for a reason. The reason may be to get 
a greater clearness, or force, or symmetry, or it may be to 
get a better fitting of the sentences into one another. This 
last aspect — the fitting of one sentence into another so 
that the thought of one sentence flows on easily into the 
next is termed modulation. The expectancy roused by 
one sentence is satisfied in the next. We go from thought 
to thought, clearly, easily, safely, as on stepping-stones. 
In general only familiarity -with good writing, especially 
with good literature read aloud, helps us to master this 
quality of style. 

Exercise i. — Read the following aloud to feel the 
smoothness of adjustment in the whole. Then study the 
form of each sentence after the first to see how the sen- 
tence has been formed to give modulation. 

I. — Planting a Tree. 
When we plant a tree, we are doing what we can to make 
our planet a more wholesome and happier dwelling place 

299 



300 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

for those who come after us, if not for ourselves. As you 
drop the seed, as you plant the sapling, your left hand 
hardly knows what your right hand is doing. But nature 
knows, and in time the power that sees and works in 
secret will reward you openly. 

II. — A Poor Child. 

1 know I do not exaggerate the scantiness of my re- 
sources or the difficulties of my life. I know that if a 
shilling were given me by Mr. Quinion at any time, I 
spent it on a dinner or a tea. I know that I worked from 
morning until night, with common men and boys, a 
shabby child. I know that I lounged about the streets, 
insufficiently and unsatisfactorily fed. I know that but 
for the mercy of God, I might easily have been, for any care 
that was taken of me, a little robber or a little vagabond. 

— By Charles Dickens. From "David Copperfield." 

III. — Dorlcote Mill. 

Now, I can turn my eyes toward the mill again, and 
watch the unresting wheel, sending out its diamond jets 
of water. That little girl is, watching it, too. She has 
been standing on just the same spot, at the edge of the 
water, ever since I paused on the bridge; and that queer 
white cur with the brown ear seems to be leaping and 
barking in ineffectual remonstrance with the wheel; per- 
haps he is jealous, because his playfellow in the beaver 
bonnet is so rapt in its movement. 

It is time the little playfellow T went in, I think; and 
there is a very bright fire to tempt her — the red light shines 
out under the deepening gray of the sky. It is time, too, 
for me to leave off resting my arms on the cold stone of 



SPECIAL QUALITIES OF STYLE. 301 

this bridge. . . . Oh! my arms are really benumbed. I 
have been pressing my elbows on the arms of my chair, 
and dreaming that I was standing on the bridge in front 
of Dorlcote Mill, and seeing it as it looked one February 
afternoon many years ago. 

— By George Eliot. From "The Mill on the Floss." 

Symmetry. — The sentence, like any other tool, should 
be well balanced. Every good writer has a feeling for 
the phrases of his sentence, their weight, their movement, 
their adjustment. Good sentences show a certain sym- 
metry of structure and a rhythm of movement. 

1. (1) The symmetry of construction may be only in 

simple words: 

Forgive and forget. 

(2) It may be in whole phrases: 

He had come there to speak to her, and speak to her he would. 

(3) It may extend to whole clauses. 

All the brothers were valiant, and all the sisters virtuous. 
Symmetry of construction in words, phrases, or clauses 
is called balance (see p. 259), and a sentence with sym- 
metrical construction is called a balanced sentence. 

2. It may be found in successive sentences in the para- 
graph, when the successive sentences have a common 
bearing. Study the symmetry of construction in the 
following : 

Woe unto them that call evil good, and good evil; that put 
darkness for light, and light for darkness: that put bitter for 
sweet, and sweet for bitter! Woe unto them that are wise 
in their own eyes, and prudent in their own sight! Woe unto 
them that are mighty to drink wine, and men of strength to 
mingle strong drink: which justify the wicked for reward, 
and take away the righteousness of the righteous from him! 



302 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

This is called parallel construction in the paragraph. 

The sense of modulation, for balance, for rhythm, is 
the chief source of the pleasing music of good prose, called 
melody. The composition, as we say, runs smoothly, or 
reads well. 

Exercise 2. — Point out instances of symmetry or con- 
trast in each of the following. Try each sentence without 
contrast, and note the difference in the force: 1. The worse 
the carpenter, the more the chips. 2. The paths of glory 
lead but to the grave. 3. I naturally hate the face of a 
tyrant. The farther off he is removed from me, the better 
pleased am I. 4. Truth forever on the scaffold, wrong 
forever on the throne. 5. The poorer the guest, the better 
pleased he is at being well treated. 6. We thought her 
dying when she slept, afad^ sleeping when she died. 7. A 
Christmas frost had come at mid-summer; a white De- 
cember storm had whirled over June; ice glazed the apples, 
drifts crushed the glowing roses; on hay-field and corn- 
field lay a frozen shroud ! Lanes which last night blushed 
full of flowers, to-day were pathless with untrodden snow; 
and the woods, which twelve hours since waved leafy and 
fragrant as groves between the tropics, now spread, waste, 
wild, and white as pine forests in wintry Norway. 

Exercise 3. — Study the following to see how T the sen- 
tences show symmetry, or force, or both: 1. Blow, blow, 
thou bitter wind. 2. A living dog is better than a dead 
lion. 3. O where and O where is your Highland laddie 
gone? 4. Talent is that which is in a man's power; 
genius is that in whose power a man is. 5. Charity 
beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all things 
endureth all things. 6. I were better to be eaten to death 



SPECIAL QUALITIES OF STYLE. 303 

with a rust than to be scoured to nothing with perpetual 
motion. (Falstaff.) 

7. Thrice looked he at the city; 
Thrice looked he at the dead; 
And thrice came on in fury, 

And thrice turned back in dread. 

8. One Sunday I went with Titbottom a few miles into the 
country. "Thank God," exclaimed Titbottom suddenly, 
"I own this landscape." "You?" returned I. "Cer- 
tainly," said he. "Why," I answered, "I thought this was 
part of Bourne's property!" Titbottom smiled. "Does 
Bourne own that sun and sky? Does Bourne own the 
golden lustre of the grain or the motion of the wood? 
Does Bourne own that sailing shadowthere? Bourne 
owns the dirt and fences; I own the beauty that makes 
the landscape." 

III. Written Composition. — i. Write out in good 
prose the speech of Henry V at Agincourt. 

Read Shakespeare, " Henry V," IV, iii. 

Picture the situation. Then give the speech in the first person. 

2. Write out as if you ware making the speech: 1. The 
address of Henry V to his soldiers before Harfleur ("Henry 
V," Act in, Sc. 1). 2. The speech of Brutus to the citizens 
of Rome, or in briefer form, Mark Antony's ("Julius 
Caesar," Act 111). 3. Shylock's defence of himself ("Mer- 
chant of Venice," Act 111), or Portia's plea for mercy 
(Act iv). 

3. Write a speech on the (supposed) news of an armed 
invasion of America, by the Japanese or other foreign 
nation. 



304 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

4. i. The Appeal a Tired Clock made to Father Time. 
2. A Plea for Kindness to Animals. 

5. 1. Turn the following into speeches: 1. "My 
Country, 'tis of Thee." 2. " Work for the Night is Com- 
ing." 3. Longfellow's " Psalm of Life." 



LESSON LXXVIII. 

I. Oral Composition. — Discussion of the Picturesque. 

II. Qualities of Style — Picturesqueness. — One of the 

charms of a good style is the fresh, vivid images it pre- 
sents to the mind. This picturesqueness of style shows 
itself in various ways. 

1. Concreteness. (See p. 213.) 

2. It may be that the writer feels vividly the color of 
objects and adds touches that light up the description. 

Exercise i. — Study this little picture of: 

A Farm House. 

They were thinking of their gray farm house, high on 
a long western slope, with the afternoon sun full on its 
face, the old red barn, the pasture, the shaggy woods that 
stretched far up the mountain side. 

3. It may be that the speaker feels especially the spell 
of some concrete objects about which are associated the 
deepest emotions — the house, the cradle, the flag. A 
sudden vivid concrete picture of such an object may 
create a powerful impression. 

Exercise 2. — Study this passage: 



SPECIAL QUALITIES OF STYLE. 305 

The Colors of the Regiment. 

The subjugation of the robber tribes of the Cutchee 
Hills was one of the most noteworthy exploits of Sir 
Charles Napier's work in India. They dwelt secure and 
unsubdued in a deep valley, surrounded by precipitous 
mountains, traversed only by two or three dizzy moun- 
tainous roads. That mountain side had to be scaled. It 
was out of reason to order men on a service so perilous. 
Only volunteers could do it. 

Now the Sixty-fourth Bengal Infantry had recently 
mutinied; they were in disgrace; their colonel had been 
cashiered, their flag, the centre and glory of the regi- 
ment, taken away from them. A hundred men of this 
disgraced regiment volunteered. Napier's eye kindled 
as he saw them step from the ranks. " Soldiers of the 
Sixty-fourth, your colors are on the top of yonder 
hill!" 

4. It may be that the writer has the dramatic imagina- 
tion and can see and represent the persons of the story 
in significant scene and action. 

Exercise 3. — Study this picture — the concreteness of 
scene and actions; note the dramatic method used. 

The Song of the Jews in Captivity. 
By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down, yea we 
wept, when we remembered Zion. We hung our harps 
on the willows in the midst thereof, for they that carried 
us away captive required of us a song, saying, Sing us one 
of the songs of Zion. How t shall we sing the Lord's song 
in a strange land ? If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my 
right hand forget her cunning. 



306 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

III. Written Composition. — i. Study the picture of 
"A Winter Night/' p. 24. Imagine the animal story that 
would account for the scene. Develop picturesquely the 
details. Draw up an outline. Write the story. 

2. Develop the theme and write on: 1. Before the Rain 
and After the Rain. 2. Daybreak in the City (or in the 
Country.) 3. A Windstorm (on land or at sea). 4. A 
Marsh, or Swamp, or Forest, or Prairie. 

3. 1. A Storm at Sea. 2. A Bull Fight. 3. The North 
Pole. 4. The Woods at Night. 5. What Goes on in the 
Woods. 6. Yesterday's Storm. 7. Monday, Washday. 
8. Ironing Day. 9. Moving Day. 10. Autumn Changes. 

4. 1. A Harvest Day in Minnesota. 2. A Visit to the 
" Evangeline" Country. 3. A Day in the Thousand 
Islands. 4. The Hudson River. 5. New York Harbor in 
a Fog. 6. New Orleans. 7. Quebec. 

Tcipics of local interest should take the place of such of these as are not 
familiar. 

5. Describe a house you have lived in and cared for. 

6. Recollections of the Attic of our Old House. 

7. Our School. ■ (Its appearance; its history; its main- 
tenance; its purpose for me.) 



LESSON LXXIX. 

I. Oral Composition. — Discussion and study of Pathos. 

II. Qualities of Style.— Pathos. Writing that ap- 
peals to the tender or sorrowful feelings has the quality of 
pathos. The writer takes those subjects that have in 
them the elements of sympathy and tenderness — the rela- 



SPECIAL QUALITIES OF STYLE. 307 

tions of playmates, comrades, lovers, the feelings of 
religion, of home, of country — and he treats them so as 
to touch our own feelings of tenderness and loving kind- 
ness. Or, he takes those elements of life that involve the 
sense of loss — the death or absence of those we love, exile 
from country, the passing away of great men and great 
ages, the ruins of great buildings, the decay of nations, the 
inevitable changes in life itself. These are some of the 
griefs of humanity that give rise to the sorrowful feelings 
of pathos. The writer treating these things seeks some 
solution, some refuge, and he finds it in the emotion of 
pity, tenderness, love, in whatever may assuage the pain 
of loss. The sense of loss is thus merged into a greater 
emotion that conquers the pain — the sense of love or peace, 
the magnanimity of spirit, the power of fate, the glory of a 
far-reaching view of human destiny. 

Exercise i. — Study the elements of pathos and how 
they are expressed in the following passage. Dickens is 
describing the passing away of Mrs. Dombey at the birth 
of her son Paul: 

"The doctor gently brushed the scattered ringlets of 
the child aside from the face and mouth of the mother. 
Alas, how calm they lay there; how little breath there was 
to stir them ! 

"Thus, clinging fast to that slight spar within her arms, 
the mother drifted out upon the dark and unknown sea 
that rolls round all the world." — "Dombey and Son." 

Exercise 2. — Study the elements of pathos in the fol- 
lowing. Gray describes the village churchyard: 

" Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade, 
Where heaves the turf in many a mouldering heap, 



308 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Each in his narrow cell forever laid, 

The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep." 

Exercise 3. — Study the elements of pathos in the fol- 
lowing. Irving turns from Westminster Abbey as he sees 
it to the thought of how time may change it : 

"What, then, is to insure this pile which now towers 
above me from sharing the fate of mightier mausoleums ? 
The time must come when its gilded vaults, which now 
spring so loftily, shall lie in rubbish beneath the feet; when, 
instead of the sound of melody and praise, the wind shall 
whistle through the broken arches, and the owl hoot from 
the shattered tower — when the garish sunbeam shall break 
into these gloomy mansions of death, and the ivy twine 
round the fallen column and the foxglove hang its blos- 
soms about the nameless urn, as if in mockery of the dead. 
Thus man passes aw^ay; his name perishes from record 
and recollection, his history is as a tale that is told, and his 
very monument becomes a ruin !" — " Westminster Abbey," 
in "The Sketch Book." 

III. Written Composition. — 1 . Tell the story of Brown- 
ing's " Incident of the French Camp." 

2. Tell the story in one of the following poems: 1. "The 
Three Fishers" (Charles Kingsley). 2. "The Wreck of 
the Hesperus" (Longfellow). 3. "The Charge of the 
Light Brigade" (Tennyson). 4. "Lucy Gray" (Words- 
worth). 5. "Excelsior" (Longfellow). 6. "The Lord of 
Burleigh" (Tennyson). 7. "The Lady of Shalott" 
(Tennyson). 8. "Lord Ullin's Daughter" (Campbell). 
9. "Casabianca" (Mrs. Hemans). 10. "In the Tunnel" 
(Bret Harte). 11. "Dickens in Camp" (Bret Harte). 



SPECIAL QUALITIES OF STYLE. 309 

12. " Little Boy Blue" (Eugene Field). 13. "The Reverie 
of Poor Susan" (Wordsworth). 14. "Auld Robin Gray" 
(Lady Lindsay). 

3. 1. Sad Aspects of Life in a City. 2. The Country 
Churchyard. 3. The Last of the Old Year. 4. The 
Passing of the Indian. 5. The Boy of No Account. 
6. An Abandoned Mill (or Farm, or Village). 

4. Tell a short story suggested by the title "The Empty 
Saddle." 

LESSON LXXX. 

I. Oral Composition. — Discussion and study of Hu- 
mor. 

II. Qualities of Style. — Humor. The realization in 
speech of the ludicrous, droll, amusing phases of life and 
thought makes humor. Humor shows itself both in the 
material the writer chooses to deal with, and in the treat- 
ment he gives to his topic. When humor is intellectual 
and brief, it is called wit. The pun, the epigram, the 
lampoon, the parody, are forms of wit. Humor, proper, 
is apt to be diffused, genial, sympathetic; it loves while it 
laughs. 

Exercise i. — Point out the wit or humor in the follow- 
ing: 1. The poet asks for bread and the world gives him 
a stone. 2. My landlord has retired to Edmonton on 
twenty-five pounds a year and one anecdote (Lamb). 
3. (After reading the inscriptions on tombstones) " Sister, 
where are all the bad people buried ?" 4. The miser wept 
to think what his funeral would cost. 5. We have to put 
up with our relations, like the nose on our face, because 



310 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

it is our own flesh and blood. 6. The old lady had a face 
that betokened the perpetual smack of lemon. 7. He 
retired to an attic to write, to the company of an ink-well 
and a table. 8. The Chief Justice — "Your means are 
slender and your waste is great." Falstaff — "I wish it 
were otherwise. I wish my means were greater and my 
waist slenderer." 9. " Ladies and gentlemen, as there is 
nobody here, I'll dismiss you all. The performance will 
not be performed, but will be repeated to-morrow night." 

10. His death which happened in his berth, 
At forty odd befell; 
They went and told the sexton, and 
The sexton toll'd the bell. 

Exercise 2. — Point out each aspect of humor and 
pathos in "The Cratchits' Christmas Dinner." 

The Cratchits' Christmas Dinner. 

Up rose Mrs. Cratchit, Bob Cratchit's wife, dressed out 
but poorly in a twice-turned gown, but brave in ribands 
which are cheap and make a goodly show for sixpence; 
and she laid the cloth assisted by Belinda Cratchit, second 
of her daughters, also brave in ribands; while Master 
Peter Cratchit blew the fire, until the slow potatoes, bub- 
bling up, knocked loudly at the saucepan lid to be let out 
and peeled. 

Then in came little Bob, the father, with at least three 
feet of comforter, exclusive of the fringe, hanging down 
before him; and his threadbare clothes darned up and 
brushed, to look seasonable; and Tiny Tim upon his 
shoulder. Alas for Tiny Tim, he bore a little crutch, and 
had his limbs supported by an iron frame ! 



SPECIAL QUALITIES OF STYLE. 311 

Bob, turning up his cuffs, as if, poor fellow, they were 
capable of being made more shabby — compounded some 
hot mixture in a jug with gin and lemons, while Master 
Peter and the two ubiquitous young Cratchits went to 
fetch the goose, with which they returned in high procession. 

Mrs. Cratchit made the gravy (ready beforehand in a 
little saucepan) hissing hot; Master Peter mashed the 
potatoes with incredible vigor; Miss Belinda sweetened 
up the apple sauce; Martha dusted the hot plates; Bob 
took Tiny Tim beside him in a tiny corner at the table; 
the two young Cratchits set chairs for everybody, not for- 
getting themselves, and mounting guard upon their posts, 
crammed spoons into their mouths, lest they should shriek 
for goose before their turn came to be helped. At last 
the dishes were set on, and grace was said. It was suc- 
ceeded by a breathless pause, as Mrs. Cratchit, looking 
slowly along the carving knife, prepared to plunge it in 
the breast; but when she did, and when the long-expected 
gush of stuffing issued forth, one murmur of delight arose 
all round the board, and even Tiny Tim, excited by the 
two young Cratchits, beat on the table with the handle of 
his knife, and feebly cried Hurrah ! 

There never was such a goose. Its tenderness and 
flavor, size and cheapness, were the themes of universal 
admiration. Eked out by the apple sauce and mashed 
potatoes, it was a sufficient dinner for the whole family, 
and the young Cratchits in particular were steeped in 
sage and onion to the eyebrows ! But now, the plates being 
changed by Miss Belinda, Mrs. Cratchit left the room 
alone — too nervous to bear witnesses — to take the pudding 
up and bring it in. 



312 COMPOSITION FOR GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. 

Suppose it should not be done enough! Suppose it 
should break in turning out ! Suppose somebody should 
have got over the wall of the back yard, and stolen it, 
while they were merry with the goose — a supposition at 
which the two young Cratchits became livid ! All sorts of 
horrors were supposed. 

Hallo ! A great deal of steam ! The pudding was out 
of the copper. A smell like a washing-day! That was 
the cloth. A smell like an eating house and a pastry 
cook's next door to each other, with a laundress's next 
door to that ! That was the pudding. In half a minute 
Mrs. Cratchit entered : flushed, but smiling proudly: with 
the pudding like a speckled cannon-ball, so hard and firm, 
blazing in half a quartern of ignited brandy, and bedight 
with Christmas holly stuck into the top. 

Oh, a wonderful pudding! Everybody had something 
to say about it, but nobody said or thought it was at all 
a small pudding for so large a family. It would have been 
flat heresy to do so. Any Cratchit would have blushed to 
hint at such a thing. 

At last the dinner was all done, the cloth was cleared, 
the hearth swept, and the fire made up. The compound 
in the jug being tasted was considered perfect, apples and 
oranges were put upon the table, and a shovelful of 
chestnuts on the fire. Then all the Cratchit family drew 
round the hearth, in what Bob Cratchit called a circle, 
meaning half a one; and Bob served out the hot stuff 
from the jug with beaming looks, while the chestnuts on 
the fire sputtered and cracked noisily. Then Bob proposed : 

"A Merry Christmas to us all, my dears. God bless 
us!" 



SPECIAL QUALITIES OF STYLE. 313 

Which all the family reechoed. 

"God bless us every one!" said Tiny Tim, the last of 
all. 

— By Charles Dickens. From "The Christmas Carol." The whole story may 
with advantage be read to the class. 

III. Written Composition. — i. Write in the spirit of 
"The Cratchits' Christmas Dinner," on one of the follow- 
ing: 1. How Santa Claus Got Ready for Christmas. 2. 

How Got a Christmas Tree. 3. Why Santa Claus 

Came Late to the . 4. Thanksgiving Day at 

5. A Family Party. 6. An Adventure on Hallowe'en. 7. 
Winter Fun. 8. A Coasting (or Skating) Party. 

2. 1. The Adventures of a Silver Quarter, or a News- 
paper, or a Valentine. 2. The Reflections of a Street 
Lamp, or of a Mirror. 3. The Recollections of a Piano 
or of a Violin. 

3. 1. Summarize Sergeant Buzfuz's address, or the 
story of the Skating Party ("Pickwick Papers"). 2. Tell 
the story of "The Well of St. Keyne" (Southey). Or 3. 
"John Gilpin" (Cowper). 

4. Study the frontispiece of this book. Draw up an 
outline of the details of the scene, noting all the pictur- 
esque elements. Write the story suggested by the picture. 



SOURCE BOOKS FOR COMPOSITION 

Fables : 

Thomas James. Fables of sEsop. La Fontaine. Fables. 

Fairy Tales and Folk Lore: 

Mrs. Craik (D. M. Mulock). The Fairy Book. 

H. E. Scudder. Fables and Folk Stories (2 pts.) Book of Legends. 

Mrs. Burton Harrison. The Old-F ashioned Fairy Book. 

Classical Mythology and Biography: 

Lempriere. Classical Dictionary. Or, Smith. Classical Dictionary. 

Stories of the Saints: 

Mrs. Molesworth. Stories of the Saints for Children. 

Nature Study: 

F. L. Holtz. Nature Study. 

Poems and Prose for Reading to the Class: 

Harris and Gilbert. Poems by Grades. Vol. I for Grades I, II, III, 
IV. Vol. II for Grades V, VI, VII, VIII. 

"Ingpen." One Thousand Poems for Children. 

J. P. McCaskey. Lincoln Literary Collection. 
Pictures for Composition Themes: 

The Cosmos Pictures Co., 119 West 25th Street, New York City. 

The Perry Pictures, Boston, Mass. 

History, Voyages and Explorations: 

Charlotte M. Yonge. A Book of Golden Deeds. 

Gordy. Leaders and Heroes. American Explorers. Colonial Days. 

A. B. Hart. Source Readers in American History. 

A. Machar and T. G. Marquis. Stories of New France. 

Exposition: 

Mitchill and Carpenter. Exposition in Class-Room Practice. 

Processes of Manufacture, etc.: 
Young Folks 7 Cyclopedia. 

Argumentation and Persuasion: 
Lamont. English Composition. 

314 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Abbot, The 267 

abbreviations 153 

abstract nouns 212 

adjective, 102, number in. 83 

adjective clause . . 133 

adjective phrase . 133 

adverb.... 115, 130 

adverb clause 133 

adverb phrase 133 

advertisement 183 

agreement 200, 201, 218 

alliteration 255 

amplification 254, 255, 295 

anticlimax 255 

antithesis, or contrast 246 

apophthegm 259 

apostrophe, 185, 247; to mark omis- 
sion of letter or letters, 185, to mark 

possessive case 185 

Apple-tree, The 117 

appositive noun, or noun in apposition 165 
ARGUMENTATION: defined, 288; 

principles of 300,301 

Atalanta's Race 85 

attributes, 33, place of 205, 206 

Baker's Daughter, The 98 

balance, balanced sentence 259, 301 

Barefoot Boy, The 243 

Barnyard Talk, A 100 

Battle of the Standard, The 196 

Belling the Cat 34 

bill 173-175 

Blacksmith's Shop, The 236 

Books of my Boyhood, 2 he 238 

Boy in the Country, The 243 

Bunker Hill Oration 293 

CAPITAL LETTERS, 13, 142-144; 

to begin a sentence, 142; to begin 
each line of poetry, 143. to begin a 

quotation, 142, with title 142 

Carlvle, Thomas 55, 267 

case." 91-93, 95 

de Chastellux. F. J 222 

Chatham's Plea for Peace 290 

check • 178 

choice of words 213. 222, 234, 237 

Christmas Carol, The 313 

Cinderella 66 

Clark, Captain Wm 139, 141 

clause 19 

CLEARNESS, 281-284 plan, 281; 
precise use of words, 28 1 . purity of 
English, 281; bearing of words, 
28 1 construction of sentences, 28 1 ; 
bearing of sentences 281 

3i; 



PAGE 

climax 255 

Climbing a Mountain 127 

colon, 179, to separate clauses punctu- 
ated by semicolons, 179 before 
quotations, 180, with dash, 180, 

before enumeration 180 

Colors of the Regiment, The 305 

comma, with subordinate clause, 22; 
with parts of a series, 38, 169. to 
mark off noun of address, 165 to 
mark off parentheses, 165 with ap- 
positives, 166; with distinct phrases 
and clauses, 169; to mark an 
omitted word, 169; with clauses of 

contrast 169 

COMMERCIAL FORMS 173-187 

Companions of Columbus 207 

complex-compound sentence 29, 68 

complex sentence 26, 64 

compound sentence 18, 19, 60 

compound subject 37 

conciseness, 240 means of 240 

concord, or agreement 200, 218 

concrete nouns 211 

concreteness 213, 270, 275 

conjugation, strong and weak. . . . 224. 225 

conjunction 123, 125, 130 

conjunction phrase 134 

contrast 246 

coordination 21 

Crane, Ichabod, Description of 262 

Crat chits' Christmas Dinner, The. . . . 310 
Crow and the Pitcher, The 54 

Dandelion, The 121 

dash, 184, with colon, 184: with 
break or pause, 184; with parenthe- 
sis, 184, preparation for summing 
up, 184; before direct quotations, 

184; for omitted letters 184 

David Copperfield 300 

Death of Roland, The 193 

denouement 195 

DESCRIPTION, 220-270 princi- 
ples of, 232, 233 introduction, 
body, ending, 232. coherence. 232, 
point of view, 233 development, 
233, salient characteristic, 233; 
unity of theme and tone, 233; of 

character 249 

DEVELOPMENT OF THEME: 
nature, 136; historical narrative, 
211, 213, description, 236 ; exposi- 
tion 286 

dialogue 102 

Dickens, Charles 300, 313 

direct narration 142 



316 



INDEX 



PAGE 

direct object 48, 142 

direct quotation 142 

Discovery of the Pacific Ocean, The. . . 205 

Dorlcote Mill 300 

Dragon Fly, The 114 

due bill 179 

Easy sentences 276 

Electric Battery, An 267 

elements of style. See Style. 

Eliot, George 301 

emphasis in sentence 295-297 

ending 195, 199 

English Illustrated Magazine 227 

epigram 309 

exclamation, 256; mark of 6 

exclamatory sentence 6 

Exploration of the Columbia River, 

The 139 

EXPOSITORY ' 'COMPOSITION, 
261-287; denned, 263; principles 
of 266, 269, 270 

FABLES 32-55 

Fall of the Bastile. The 213 

FAMILIAR SCENES AND INCI- 
DENTS 1-31 

Farm Yard, A 282 

FIGURES OF SPEECH, 245-247, 
250, 254 founded on contrast, 246; 
on resemblance, 246, 247; on asso- 
ciation, 250,251- on expression.. . 254 
First Settlement of the English in New 

England, The 211 

Flying Dutchman, The 81 

FOLK LORE AND FAIRY 

TALES 56-69 

Fool of the Family, The 61 

FORCE, 294-298 by amplification, 
295; by sentence stress, 295 by un- 
usual order, 296, by figures of 
speech, 297; by emphasis in the 

paragraph 297 

foreign plurals 82 

FORM, ELEMENTS OF: capital 
letters, 13, 142-144; italics, 147; 
familiar letters, 151; formal per- 
sonal letter, 162; business letter, 
167, 168; business forms — bill, in- 
voice, statement, 173-175; receipt, 
177; check, 178; promissory note, 
179; due-bill, 179; postal-card, 182; 

telegram, 183; advertisement 183 

Forsaken Merman, The 86 

Fox and the Crane, The 40 

Fox and the Crow, The 37 

Fox Without a Tail, The 32 

Freeman, E. A 198 

Frog and the Ox, The 43 

Furst, Mary Louise 280 

Gender 86 

Good Word for Winter, A 132 

Goose and the Golden Eggs, The 54 

Gray, Thomas 307 



PAGE 

Green, John Richard 258 

Hercules and the Farmer 54 

HISTORICAL NARRATIVE . 188-219 
History of the Expedition under the 
Command of Captains Lewis and 

Clark 141 

Hogg, Tames Ill 

Hop-Scotch. .. 262 

How Cotton is Grown and Picked. . . 272 

How to Make a Loaf of Bread 278 

How to Make Bulbs Bloom 265 

How to Play Hop-Scotch 262 

HUMOR: wit, pun, epigram, lam- 
poon, parody 309 

hyperbole 259 

hyphen: in joining words, 185; in di- 
vided words 185 

INDIRECT NARRATION, or quo- 
tation 142 

indirect object 48 

inflection 200 

innuendo 260 

interest 192 

interjection 128-130 

interrogation, 159, 258 mark 4, 159 

invitations 163 

invoice 173 

irony 260 

Irving, Washington. . . . 207, 250, 254, 308 
ITALICS 147 

Jack of Cornwall 58 

Johnson, Wm. Henry 207 

Karr, Alphonse 1 14 

Kingsley, Charles 128 

Lampoon 309 

I arch and the Oak, The 55 

1 ark and the Wheat field, The 50 

I eqend of Sleepy Hollow, The 254 

LETTERS, 151-172 familiar, 151; 
parts of, 156, 157; heading, 156; 
salutation, 157; complimentary 
ending, 157; signature, 157, place 
of parts, 158, paper and ink, 159; 
formal personal, 163 heading, com- 
plimentary opening, complimentary 
close, 163; business letter, parts 

of 167 

Lewis, Captain Meriweather 139, 141 

link-word 19 

Logging in the Backwoods 226 

Lohengrin 81 

Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth 234 

Lorelei, The 82 

Lowell, James Russell 132 

Macaulay, Thomas Babington 152 

Man in the Moon, The 56 

Marmion 193 

Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, Descrip- 
tion of 267 



INDEX 



3*7 



melody 302 

metaphor 246 

metonvmv 251 

Milk-Maid, The, Story of 54 

Mill on the Floss, The 301 

Miller, Hugh 240 

Miller, Olive Thorne 105 

Miner, Charles 284 

modifiers, 33, kinds of, 41; place of. . 208 

modulation 299 

Mouse Tower on the Rhine, The. ... 94 

My Lost Youth 234 

My Schools and School Masters 240 

NARRATION: direct, 34: princi- 
ples of, 191; unitv, 191, 199; order, 
191, 199; interest, 192; resolution 
or denouement, 195; ending, 195, 
199; proportion, 198; heightening 

of interest 199 

Nathan Hale 215 

NATURE THEMES 100-150 

nominative of address 92 

Norman Conquest, The 198 

note 179 

noun, 72; number, 76, 77, 80, 82; 
gender, 86, 87: case, 91-93, 95-96, 
noun in apposition, 165; abstract, 

215; concrete 215 

noun clause 131 

number 76, 77, 80, 82, 200 

Object, 45 direct and indirect 48 

objective case 92 

order 191 

order of words, 203, 204, 208, 209; 

unusual 296, 297 

Outlaw, The 149 

Paragraph, indentation, 10, 43, 52; 
unity, 51, 52, 260 topic sentence, 
266, 297, parallel construction, 301, 302 

parentheses 180 

parody 309 

parts of speech. See Words 129, 130 

PATHOS 306-307 

Patriotism 286 

period, 2, 152 end of declarative or 
imperative sentence, 152. end of 
title, 153; to indicate abbreviation, 

153 after Roman numerals 154 

peroration 298 

person 199 

personification: 247 

PERSUASION, 290-298; principles 

of 292 

phrasal possessive 96 

phrase — adjective, 133: adverb, 133; 
preposition, 134; conjunction, 134; 

verb 134 

Picking Cotton 272 

PICTURESQUENESS 304-307 

Pioneer Spaniards in North America 207 

Pitt, William 291 

plan 265 



PAGE 

Planting a Tree 299 

Plea for Peace 290 

Plural number, 76 foreign plurals. . . 82 

Poor Child, A 300 

possessive case, 96, phrasal 96 

Postal-card 182 

Poulsson, Emilie 101 

precision 237 

predicate, 9 understood, 36 parts of, 
41, 42, complement, 52, nomina- 
tive 92 

preposition 118, 130 

preposition phrase 134 

prolix 240 

promissory note 179 

pronouns, 106, 107; number in 83 

proportion 198, 199 

proverb 259 

pun 260, 300 

PUNCTUATION: period, or full 
stop, 2, 152; interrogation point, 4, 
159; exclamation point, 6, 160; 
comma, 22, 165, 166, 168, 169; 
quotation-marks, 34. semicolon, 
175, colon, 179 dash, 184, apostro- 
phe, 185, hyphen 185 

purity 234, 281 

Qualities of style. See Style. 

Queen Esther 188 

quotation, direct, 142, 160, indirect, 
142, 160, mark 34, 142, 160 

Rambler, The 249 

reasoning 300 

receipt 179 

Reid, Mayne 26 

repetition 255 

Robin Hood and the Sheriff of Not- 
tingham 88 

St. Christopher 74 

St. George and the Dragon 70 

Saint Patrick 77 

SAINTS' LIVES AND OLD- 
WORLD LEGENDS 70-99 

sarcasm 260 

Saw-Mill, A 230 

Scott, Sir Walter. 140, 193, 258 

Second Book of Birds, The 105 

semicolon, 175; to mark off long 
clauses, 175; to mark off punctu- 
ated clauses 175 

SENTENCE, THE: declarative, 4; 
interrogative, 4; imperative, 4, ex- 
clamatory, 6; parts of, 9; simple 
type, 14, 57; compound type, 18, 19, 
60, coordinaton, 21- subordination, 
21; complex type, 26, 64; complex- 
compound tvpe, 29, 68; easy, 276; 
topic, 266, 297: hearing, 281- sent- 
ence stress, 295-297; modulation, 

299; balance 259, 301 

sentence stress 295-297 

Settlement of the Frontier, The 220 



3i8 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Shepherd's Dog, The Ill 

Short History of the English People, A 258 

simile 246 

simple sentence 14 

simple words 222 

SIMPLICITY. . . 222, 269, 270, 275, 276 

singular number 76 

Sirens, The 85 

Sirrah, the Shepherd' 's Do? 109 

Skaters and the Wolves, The 23 

Sketch Book, The 250, 308 

Snowstorm, The 136 

Son? of the Jews in Captivity, The. . . 305 
SOURCE BOOKS FOR COMPO- 
SITION 314 

Stevenson, Robert Louis 157 

Stolen Heart, The 98 

Story of an Outing, The 8 

Strong verbs 224, 225 

STYLE, ELEMENTS OF: person, 
199, number, 200. concord or 
agreement, 200, 218; order of 
words, 203, 204, 208, 209 choice 
of, 211-214; verb forms, 224, 225, 
228; simple words, 222; purity, 
234; precision, 237; number of 
words, conciseness, 249 figures, 
of speech, 245-247, 250, 251, 254, 255 
STYLE, QUALITIES OF: sim- 
plicity, 275 clearness, 281; force, 
294, modulation, 299; picturesque- 
ness, 304 pathos, 306; humor. . . 309 
subject, 9 simple or bare, 32; under- 
stood, 35 subject and object, 45; 
subject nominative, 91; subject of 

infinitive 93 

subordination 22 

Swallow, The 104 

symmetry 301 

synecdoche 250 

synonyms 237 

Tabulation of orders 168 

telegram 183 

tense 224 

theme, development of. See Develop- 
ment. 



PAGE 

topic sentence 266, 297 

topical outline 35, 138 

Tour Around My Garden, A 1 14 

transferred epithet 251 

traveller's point of view 233 

Travels in North America 222 

Unity 191, 199 

unusual order of words 296, 297 

Verb, 41; concord or agreement, 200, 
201 person and number, 83, 200, 
201; forms, 224; strong and weak 

224, 225 

verb phrases 134 

verbose 24C 

Wandering Jew, The 7£ 

Water-Babies 128 

Waterfall, A 146 

weak verbs 224, 225 

Webster, Daniel 294 

Webster's Peroration to " The Bunker 

Hill Oration " 293, 

Whittier, John Greenleaf 244 

Who'll Turn the Grindstone 283 

Wild Ducks and the Frog, The 40 

Winter Landscape, A 131 

Wise Men and the Elephant, The 46 

wit 309 

Woodhull, Professor John F 269 

word groups, 133 functional value of, 
133, 134; adjective phrase, 133; 
adjective clause, 133; noun clause, 
134; preposition phrase, 134 con- 
junction phrase, 134 verb phrase. . 134 
WORDS, KINDS OF; noun, 76, 77, 
80, 82. 91-93, 95; adjective, 83, 
102, 130 pronoun, 106, 107, 130; 
verb, 112, 130, adverb, 115, 130; 
preposition, 118, 130 interjection, 
130, conjunction, 122, 125, 130; 

parts of speech 129, 130 

words, order of, 203, 204, 208; un- 
usual 209 

words, simple, 222; precise 237 



AU ^ 22 1908 



